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TheKamakura period (鎌倉時代,Kamakura jidai, 1185–1333) is a period ofJapanese history that marks the governance by theKamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 inKamakura by the firstshōgunMinamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of theGenpei War, which saw the struggle between theTaira andMinamoto clans. The period is known for the emergence of thesamurai, the warrior caste, and for the establishment offeudalism in Japan.
There are various theories as to the year in which the Kamakura period and Kamakura shogunate began. In the past, the most popular theory was that the year was 1192, when Minamoto no Yoritomo was appointedSeii Taishōgun (征夷大将軍). Later, the prevailing theory was that the year was 1185, when Yoritomo established theShugo (守護), which controlled military and police power in various regions, and theJitō (地頭), which was in charge of tax collection and land administration. Japanese history textbooks as of 2016 do not specify a specific year for the beginning of the Kamakura period, as there are various theories about the year the Kamakura shogunate was established.[1]
During the early Kamakura period, the shogunate continued warfare against theNorthern Fujiwara which was only defeated in 1189. Then, the authority to the Kamakura rulers waned in the 1190s and power was transferred to the powerfulHōjō clan in the early 13th century with the head of the clan as regent (Shikken) under the shogun which became a powerless figurehead. The later Kamakura period saw theinvasions of theMongols in 1274 and again in 1281. To reduce the amount of chaos, the Hōjō rulers decided to decentralize power by allowing two imperial lines –Northern andSouthern court, to alternate the throne. In the 1330s, the Southern court underEmperor Go-Daigo revolted and eventually led to theSiege of Kamakura in 1333 which ended the rule of the shogunate. With this, the Kamakura period ended. There was ashort re-establishment (1333–1336) of imperial rule under Go-Daigo assisted byAshikaga Takauji andNitta Yoshisada but would later lead to direct rule under Ashikaga, forming theAshikaga shogunate in the succeedingMuromachi period.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. These provided the opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority and the government established a council centered around collective leadership. The period saw the adoption of Japan's first military code of law in 1232. There was an expansion of Buddhist teachings into Old Buddhism (Kyū Bukkyō) and New Buddhism (Shin Bukkyō).
The Kamakura period marked Japan's transition to a land-based economy and the concentration of advanced military technologies in the hands of a specialized fighting class. Lords required the loyal services of vassals, who were rewarded withfiefs of their own; the fief holders then exercised local military rule. OnceMinamoto no Yoritomo had consolidated his power, he established a new government at his family home inKamakura. He called his government abakufu (幕府, tent government), but because he was given the ancient high military titleSei-i Taishōgun byEmperor Go-Toba, the government is often referred to in Western literature as the Shogunate. Yoritomo followed theFujiwara form of house government and had an administrative board (政所,Mandokoro), a board of retainers (侍所,Samurai-dokoro), and a board of inquiry (問注所,Monchūjo). After confiscating estates in central and western Japan, he appointedstewards for the estates andconstables for the provinces. Asshōgun, Yoritomo was both the steward and the constable general.
The Kamakura shogunate was not a national regime, however, and although it controlled large tracts of land, there was strong resistance to the stewards. The regime continued warfare against theNorthern Fujiwara, but never brought either the north or the west under complete military control. However, the fourth leader of the Northern FujiwaraFujiwara no Yasuhira was defeated by Yoritomo in 1189, and the 100-year-long prosperity of the north disappeared. The old court resided inKyoto, continuing to hold the land over which it had jurisdiction, while newly organized military families were attracted to Kamakura.
Despite a strong beginning, Yoritomo failed to consolidate the leadership of his family on a lasting basis. Intrafamily contention had long existed within the Minamoto, although Yoritomo had eliminated most serious challengers to his authority. When he died suddenly in 1199, his sonMinamoto no Yoriie becameshōgun and nominal head of the Minamoto, but Yoriie was unable to control the other eastern warrior families. By the early 13th century, a regency had been established byHōjō Tokimasa—a member of theHōjō clan, a branch of theTaira that had allied itself with theMinamoto in 1180. The head of Hōjō was installed as a regent for theshōgun; the regent was termed theShikken during the period, although later positions were created with similar power such as theTokusō and theRensho. Often theShikken was also theTokusō andRensho. Under the Hōjō, theshōgun became a powerless figurehead.
With the protection of the Emperor, a figurehead himself, strains emerged between Kyoto and Kamakura, and in 1221 theJōkyū War broke out between the cloisteredEmperor Go-Toba and the second regentHōjō Yoshitoki. The Hōjō forces easily won the war, and the imperial court was brought under the direct control of the shogunate. Theshōgun's constables gained greater civil powers, and the court was obliged to seek Kamakura's approval for all of its actions. Although deprived of political power, the court retained extensive estates.
Several significant administrative achievements were made during the Hōjō regency. In 1225 the third regentHōjō Yasutoki established the Council of State, providing opportunities for other military lords to exercise judicial and legislative authority within the Kamakura regime. The Hōjō regent presided over the council, which was a successful form of collective leadership. The adoption of Japan's first military code of law—theGoseibai Shikimoku—in 1232 reflected the profound transition from court to militarized society. While legal practices inKyoto were still based on 500-year-oldConfucian principles, the new code was a highly legalistic document that stressed the duties of stewards and constables, provided means for settling land disputes, and established rules governinginheritances. It was clear and concise, stipulated punishments for violators of its conditions, and parts of it remained in effect for the next 635 years.
As might be expected, the literature of the time reflected the unsettled nature of the period. TheHōjōki describes the turmoil of the period in terms of theBuddhist concepts of impermanence and the vanity of human projects. TheHeike Monogatari narrated the rise and fall of theTaira clan, replete with tales of wars and samurai deeds. A second literary mainstream was the continuation of anthologies of poetry in theShin Kokin Wakashū, of which twenty volumes were produced between 1201 and 1205.
During the Kamakura period six new Buddhist schools (classified by scholars as "New Buddhism" orShin Bukkyo) were founded:
During this time the pre-existing schools ofTendai, founded bySaichō (767–822),Shingon, founded byKūkai (774–835), and the great temples ofNara, collectively classified by scholars as "Old Buddhism" orKyū Bukkyo, continued to thrive, adapt, and exert influence.[2]: 24–25 For example, all of the above six reformers had studied at the TendaiMt. Hiei at some point in their lives.[3]: 562
Throughout the Kamakura period, older Buddhist sects includingShingon,Tendai, and theNara temple schools such asKegon,Hossō,Sanron, andRitsu continued to thrive and adapt to the trend of the times.[3]: 561–563
At the start of the Kamakura period, theMount Hiei monasteries had become politically powerful, appealing primarily to those capable of systematic study of the sect's teachings. TheShingon sect and its esoteric ritual continued to enjoy support largely from the noble families inKyoto.[4] However, with the increasing popularity of the new Kamakura schools, the older schools partially eclipsed as the newer "Kamakura" schools found followers among the new Kamakura government, and itssamurai.[citation needed]
The times that gave way to the Kamakura period were marked by political and military conflict, natural disasters, and social malaise attributed to the perceived arrival of theLatter Day of the Law. The new social order of a declining aristocracy and ascending military and peasant classes resulted in new forms of religion, both indigenous[5]: 12 and Buddhist while Indian and Chinese influence continued.[3]: 556–557 [5]: 11, 13 [6] Furthermore, theShōen manor system which had taken root in this era resulted in the increased prosperity and literacy of peasants which in turn provided more financial support for Buddhist teachers and their studies.[5]
The first originators of Kamakura Buddhism schools wereHōnen andShinran who emphasized belief and practice over formalism.[3]: 546
In the latter part of the 12th-centuryDōgen andEisai traveled to China and upon their return to Japan founded, respectively, theSōtō andRinzai schools of Zen. Dōgen rejected affiliations with the secular authorities whereas Eisai actively sought them.[3]: 574 Whereas Eisai thought that Zen teachings would revitalize theTendai school, Dōgen aimed for an ineffable absolute, a pure Zen teaching that was not tied to beliefs and practices from Tendai or other orthodox schools[3]: 566 and with little guidance for leading people how to live in the secular world.[3]: 556
The final stage of Kamakura Buddhism, occurring some 50 years after Hōnen, was marked by new social and political conditions as the aristocracy declined, the military class asserted new influence, and Buddhist-infused localkami practice among peasants flourished. These changing conditions created a climate that encouraged religious innovation.Nichiren andIppen attempted at this time to create down-to-earth teachings that were rooted in the daily concerns of people.[3]: 555–556 Nichiren rejected the focus on "next-worldly" salvation such a rebirth in a Pure Land and instead aimed for "this-worldly" personal and national liberation through a simple and accessible practice.[3]: 557 Ippen emphasized a popularized form ofnenbutsu recitation with an emphasis on practice rather than concentrating on an individual's underlying mental state.[3]: 559
As time evolved the distinctions between "Old" and "New" Buddhisms blurred as they formed "cultic centers" and various forms of founder worship. The medieval structures of these schools evolved into hierarchical head temple-branch temple structures with associated rituals and forms of worship. This culminated in the state-sanctioned formalized schools of theTokugawa period.[2]: 36–37
The repulsions of two invasions by theMongol-ledYuan dynasty were momentous events in Japanese history.Nichiren had predicted these invasions years earlier, in hisRissho Ankoku Ron, a letter to the regency. Japanese relations with China had been terminated in the mid-ninth century after the deterioration of theTang dynasty and the turning inward of theHeian court. Some commercial contacts were maintained with theSouthern Song dynasty in later centuries, butJapanese pirates made the open seas dangerous. At a time when the shogunate had little interest in foreign affairs and ignored communications from China and theGoryeo dynasty, news arrived in 1268 of a new Mongol-led regime inBeijing. Its leader,Kublai, demanded that the Japanese pay tribute to the new Yuan dynasty and threatened reprisals if they failed to do so. Unused to such threats, Kyoto raised the diplomatic counter of Japan's divine origin, rejected the Yuan demands, dismissed the Goryeo messengers, and started defensive preparations.
After further unsuccessful entreaties, the first Mongol invasion took place in 1274. More than 600 ships carried a combined ethnic Mongol,Han, andKorean force of 23,000 troops armed withcatapults, combustible missiles, and bows and arrows. In fighting, these soldiers grouped in close cavalry formations against samurai, who were accustomed to one-on-one combat. Local Japanese forces atHakata, on northernKyūshū, defended against the advantageous mainland force, which, after one day of fighting was destroyed by the onslaught of a suddentyphoon. Kublai realized that nature, not military incompetence, had been the cause of his forces' failure so, in 1281, he launched a second invasion. Seven weeks of fighting took place in northwestern Kyūshū before another typhoon struck, again destroying the Yuan fleet, which was mostly composed of hastily acquired, flat-bottomed Chinese ships especially vulnerable to powerful typhoons.
AlthoughShinto priests attributed the two defeats of the Mongols to a "divine wind" orkamikaze,[7] a sign of heaven's special protection of Japan, the invasion left a deep impression on the shogunate leaders. Long-standing fears of the Chinese threat to Japan were reinforced. The victory also convinced the warriors of the value of the shogunate form of government.
The Yuan invasions had been a drain on the economy, and new taxes had to be levied to maintain defensive preparations for the future. The invasions also caused disaffection among those who expected recompense for their help in defeating the Yuan dynasty. There were no lands or other rewards to be given, however, and such disaffection, combined with overextension and the increasing defense costs, led to a decline of the Kamakurabakufu. Additionally, inheritances had divided family properties, and landowners increasingly had to turn to moneylenders for support. Roving bands ofrōnin further threatened the stability of the shogunate.
TheHōjō reacted to the ensuing chaos by trying to place more power among the various great family clans. To further weaken theKyoto court, thebakufu decided to allow two contending imperial lines—known as theSouthern Court or junior line and theNorthern Court or senior line—to alternate on the throne. The method worked for several successions until a member of the Southern Court ascended to the throne asEmperor Go-Daigo. Go-Daigo wanted to overthrow the shogunate, and he openly defied Kamakura by naming his own son his heir. In 1331 the shogunate exiled Go-Daigo, but loyalist forces, includingKusunoki Masashige, rebelled. They were aided byAshikaga Takauji, a constable who turned against the Kamakura when dispatched to put down Go-Daigo's rebellion. At the same time,Nitta Yoshisada, another eastern chieftain, rebelled against the shogunate, which quickly disintegrated, and the Hōjō were defeated.
In the swell of victory, Go-Daigo endeavored to restore imperial authority and tenth-centuryConfucian practices. This period of reform, known as theKenmu Restoration, aimed at strengthening the position of the emperor and reasserting the primacy of the court nobles over the warriors' caste. The reality, however, was that the forces who had arisen against Kamakura had been set on defeating the Hōjō, not on supporting the emperor. Ashikaga Takauji finally sided with the Northern Court in a civil war against the Southern Court represented by Go-Daigo. The longWar Between the Courts lasted from 1336 to 1392. Early in the conflict, Go-Daigo was driven from Kyoto, and the Northern Court contender was installed by Ashikaga, who established a new line of shoguns.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain. "Japan".Country Studies.Federal Research Division.
