Western Chalukya Empire Kalyāni Chālukya | |||||||||||||
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| 957–1184[1] | |||||||||||||
![Greatest extent of the Western Chalukya Empire, 1121 AD[2]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aIndian_Western_Chalukya_Empire_map.svg) Greatest extent of the Western Chalukya Empire, 1121 AD[2] | |||||||||||||
| Status |
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| Capital | Manyakheta Basavakalyan | ||||||||||||
| Common languages | Kannada Sanskrit | ||||||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism Jainism | ||||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
| King | |||||||||||||
• 957–997 | Tailapa II | ||||||||||||
• 1184–1189 | Someshvara IV | ||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||
• Established | 957 | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1184[1] | ||||||||||||
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TheWestern Chalukya Empire (/tʃəˈluːkjə/chə-LOO-kyə) ruled most of thewestern Deccan,South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. ThisKannada dynasty is sometimes called theKalyani Chalukya after its regal capital at Kalyani, today'sBasavakalyan in the modernBidar district ofKarnataka state, and alternatively theLater Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the 6th-centuryChalukya dynasty ofBadami. The dynasty is calledWestern Chalukyas to differentiate from the contemporaneousEastern Chalukyas ofVengi, a separate dynasty. Before the rise of these Chalukyas, theRashtrakuta Empire ofManyakheta controlled most of theDeccan Plateau andCentral India for over two centuries. In 973, seeing confusion in the Rashtrakuta empire after a successful invasion of their capital by the ruler of the Paramara dynasty of Malwa,Tailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta dynasty ruling fromBijapur region defeated his overlords and made Manyakheta his capital. The dynasty quickly rose to power and grew into an empire underSomeshvara I who moved the capital to Kalyani.
For over a century, the two empires of South India, the Western Chalukyas and theChola dynasty ofThanjavur fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region ofVengi. During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage, took sides with the Cholas further complicating the situation. During the rule ofVikramaditya VI, in the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached a peak, ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between theNarmada River in the north andKaveri River in the south.[3][4][5][6] His exploits were not limited to the south for even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modernBihar andBengal.[7][8][9] During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, theHoysala Empire, theSeuna dynasty, theKakatiya dynasty and theKalachuris of Kalyani, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the later half of the 12th century.
TheWestern Chalukya architecture known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala Empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering theTungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are theKasivisvesvara Temple, Lakkundi, theMallikarjuna Temple, Kuruvatti, theKalleshvara Temple, Bagali and theMahadeva Temple, Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in South India, especially in literature, as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in their native language Kannada and inSanskrit.
_in_Praneshvara_temple_at_Talagunda.JPG)
_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Hire_Hadagali.jpg)
Knowledge of Western Chalukya history has come through examination of the numerous Kannada languageinscriptions left by the kings (scholarsSheldon Pollock and Jan Houben have claimed 90 percent of the Chalukyan royal inscriptions are in Kannada),[10][11] and from the study of important contemporary literary documents in Western Chalukya literature such asGada Yuddha (982 CE) in Kannada byRanna andVikramankadeva Charitam (1120) in Sanskrit byBilhana.[12][13] The earliest record is dated 957, during the rule ofTailapa II when the Western Chalukyas were still a feudatory of the Rashtrakutas and Tailapa II governed from Tardavadi in present-dayBijapur district,Karnataka.[14][15] The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Chalukya dynasty of the sixth century,[16][17] while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the early Chalukyas.[18]
The records suggests a possible rebellion by a local Chalukya King, Chattigadeva ofBanavasi province (c. 967), in alliance with localKadamba chieftains. This rebellion however was unfruitful but paved the way for his successor Tailapa II.[19] A few years later, Tailapa II re-established Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign ofKarka II by timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused in the Rashtrakuta capital of Manyakheta by the invading Paramaras of Central India in 973.[20][21] After overpowering the Rashtrakutas, Tailapa II moved his capital to Manyakheta and consolidated the Chalukya empire in the western Deccan by subjugating the Paramara and other aggressive rivals and extending his control over the land between the Narmada River and Tungabhadra River.[22] However, some inscriptions indicate that Balagamve in Mysore territory may have been a power centre up to the rule of Someshvara I in 1042.[23]
The intense competition between the kingdom of the western Deccan and those of theTamil country came to the fore in the 11th century over the acutely contested fertile river valleys in thedoab region of theKrishna andGodavari River calledVengi (modern coastalAndhra Pradesh). The Western Chalukyas and theChola dynasty fought many bitter wars over control of this strategic resource. The imperial Cholas gained power during the time of the famous kingRajaraja Chola I and the crown princeRajendra Chola I. Chola EmperorRajaraja Chola I conquered parts of Chalukya territory in present-day Southern Karnataka by subjugating the Western Ganga dynasty ofGangavadi. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi were cousins of the Western Chalukyas but became increasingly influenced by the Cholas through their marital ties with the Tamil kingdom. As this was against the interests of the Western Chalukyas, they wasted no time in involving themselves politically and militarily in Vengi. When KingSatyashraya succeeded Tailapa II to the throne, he was able to protect his kingdom from Chola aggression as well as his northern territories inKonkan andGujarat although his control over Vengi was shaky. In 1007 Chola crown-princeRajendra Chola I invaded Western Chalukyas and had a battle with Western Chalukya EmperorSatyashraya at Donur in Bijapur district of Karnataka. According to an inscription of Satyasraya from Dharwad, Rajaraja Nittavinoda Rajendra Vidyadhara, ornament of the Chola race, Nurmudi-Chola (one-hundred-crown Chola) invaded the Western Chalukya Empire in 1007 AD with an army of 900,000 soldiers, carrying fire and sword throughout the region. The invading troops advanced as far as Donur in Bijapur district on their way to the Chalukya capital Manyakheta, where they were met by the Chalukya army under Satyashraya. The Tanjore big temple inscriptions and Hottur inscriptions state that Rajendra Chola I destroyed the Western Chalukya capital. The result of the battle was Cholas conquered Gangapadi and Nolambapadi. Satyashraya's successor,Jayasimha II, fought many battles with the Cholas in the south around c. 1020–21 when both these powerful kingdoms struggled to choose the Vengi king.[24][25] Shortly thereafter in c. 1024, Jayasimha II subdued the Paramara of central India and the rebellious Yadava King Bhillama.[24]
It is known from records that Jayasimha's sonSomeshvara I, whose rule historian Sen considers a brilliant period in the Western Chalukya rule, moved the Chalukya capital to Kalyani in c. 1042.[26][27] Hostilities with the Cholas continued while both sides won and lost battles, though neither lost significant territory[28][29] during the ongoing struggle to install a puppet on the Vengi throne. In 1066, Vikramaditya VI, Son of Someshwara I had invaded the Chola Empire penetrating as far as the capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram and threatening the city before being repulsed by Cholas.[27][30][31] In theBattle of Vijayawada which was fought in 1068 between Someshvara I and Chola EmperorVirarajendra Chola, Someshwara I and his son Vikramaditya VI suffered defeat and lost Vengi to the Cholas. After the battle, Someshwara I due to incurable illness drowned himself in the Tungabhadra River (Paramayoga).[32][33][34] Despite many conflicts with the Cholas in the south, Someshvara I had managed to maintain control over the northern territories in Konkan, Gujarat,Malwa andKalinga during his rule. His successor, his eldest sonSomeshvara II, feuded with his younger brother,Vikramaditya VI, an ambitious warrior who had initially been governor ofGangavadi in the southern Deccan when Someshvara II was the king. Before 1068, even as a prince,Vikramaditya VI had invadedBengal, weakening the rulingPala Empire. These incursions led to the establishment ofKarnata dynasties such as theSena dynasty and Varman dynasty in Bengal, and the Nayanadeva dynasty in Bihar.[7][8][9] At the death of Someshvara I in April 1068, his son Someshvara II succeeded him as the king of Chalukya. A dispute broke out between him and his younger brother soon after, resulting in a civil war between the two over control of the empire, with the brother proclaiming himselfVikramaditya VI of Western Chalukya. Vikramditya's request for assistance to kingVirarajendra Chola was well received, with Virarajendra later recording that he recognised Vikramaditya VI as the king of Western Chalukya. Virarajendra married his daughter to Vikramaditya VI and forged an alliance with him, halting the long feud between the two empires. Vikramaditya VI won the loyalty of the Chalukya feudatories: the Hoysala, the Seuna and theKadambas of Hangal. In 1075 Vikramaditya overthrew Someshawara II and became the Western Chalukya Emperor. From 1075 to 1076, during the Chola reign ofKulottunga I, the war began with the incursion of the Vikaramaditya's forces into the Chola territories and the two armies met in the Kolar district. What followed was the Chola counter-attack popularly known as the Nangili episode. In the ensuing battle, the Chalukyan army was completely routed and chased by the Chola forces from the rocky roads of Nangili all the way to the Tungabhadra via Manalur. Vikramaditya is said to have retreated hastily and fled.[35][36]
The fifty-year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history and is referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era".[37][38][39] Not only was he successful in controlling his powerful feudatories in the north (Kadamba Jayakesi II of Goa, Silhara Bhoja and the Yadava King) and south (Hoysala Vishnuvardhana), he successfully dealt with the imperial Cholas whom he defeated in the battle of Vengi in 1093 and again in 1118. He retained this territory for many years despite ongoing hostilities with the Cholas.[3][4][5][6] This victory in Vengi reduced the Chola influence in the eastern Deccan and made him emperor of territories stretching from the Kaveri River in the south to the Narmada River in the north, earning him the titlesPermadideva andTribhuvanamalla (lord of three worlds). The scholars of his time paid him glowing tributes for his military leadership, interest in fine arts and religious tolerance.[40][41] Literature proliferated and scholars in Kannada and Sanskrit adorned his court. Poet Bilhana, who immigrated from far awayKashmir, eulogised the king in his well-known workVikramankadeva Charita.[42][43] Vikramaditya VI was not only an able warrior but also a devout king as indicated by his numerous inscriptions that record grants made to scholars and centers of religion.[44][45]
The continual warring with the Cholas exhausted both empires, giving their subordinates the opportunity to rebel.[45][49] In the decades after Vikramaditya VI's death in 1126, the empire steadily decreased in size as their powerful feudatories expanded in autonomy and territorial command.[45][50] The time period between 1150 and 1200 saw many hard fought battles between the Chalukyas and their feudatories who were also at war with each other. By the time ofJagadhekamalla II, the Chalukyas had lost control of Vengi and his successor,Tailapa III, was defeated by the Kakatiya king Prola in 1149.[50] Tailapa III was taken captive and later released bringing down the prestige of the Western Chalukyas. Seeing decadence and uncertainty seeping into Chalukya rule, the Hoysalas andSeunas also encroached upon the empire. HoysalaNarasimha I defeated and killed Tailapa III but was unable to overcome the Kalachuris, who vied for control over the same region. In 1157 theKalachuris of Kalyanis underBijjala II captured Kalyani and occupied it for the next twenty years, forcing the Chalukyas to move their capital toAnnigeri, located in the present dayDharwad district.[50][51]
The Kalachuris were originally immigrants into the southern Deccan from central India and called themselvesKalanjarapuravaradhisavaras.[52] Bijjala II and his ancestors had governed as Chalukya commanders (Mahamandaleshwar) over the Karhad-4000 and Tardavadi-1000 provinces (overlapping region in present-day Karnataka and Maharashtra) with Mangalavada[53] or Annigeri[54] as their capital. Bijjala II's Chikkalagi record of 1157 calls himMahabhujabala Chakravarti ("emperor with powerful shoulders and arms") indicating he no longer was a subordinate of the Chalukyas.[53] However the successors of Bijjala II were unable to hold on to Kalyani and their rule ended in 1183 when the last Chalukya scion,Someshvara IV, made a final bid to regain control of the empire by recapturing Kalyani.[51][54] Kalachuri King Sankama was killed by Chalukya general Narasimha in this conflict.[55][56] During this time, HoysalaVeera Ballala II was growing ambitious and clashed on several occasions with the Chalukyas and the other claimants over their empire. He defeated Chalukya Someshvara IV and Seuna Bhillama V bringing large regions in the Krishna River valley under the Hoysala domains, but was unsuccessful against Kalachuris.[57] The Seunas under Bhillama V were on an imperialistic expansion too when the Chalukyas regained Kalyani. Their ambitions were temporarily stemmed by their defeat against Chalukya general Barma in 1183 but they later had their vengeance in 1189.[58]
The overall effort by Someshvara IV to rebuild the Chalukya empire failed and the dynasty was ended by the Seuna rulers who drove Someshvara IV into exile inBanavasi 1189. After the fall of the Chalukyas, the Seunas and Hoysalas continued warring over the Krishna River region in 1191, each inflicting a defeat on the other at various points in time.[59] This period saw the fall of two great empires, the Chalukyas of the western Deccan and the Cholas of Tamilakam. On the ruins of these two empires were built the Kingdoms of their feudatories whose mutual antagonisms filled the annals of Deccan history for over a hundred years, the Pandyas taking control over some regions of the erstwhile Chola empire.[60]
The Western Chalukya kingship was hereditary, passing to the king's brother if the king did not have a male heir. The administration was highly decentralised and feudatory clans such as theAlupas, the Hoysalas, the Kakatiya, the Seuna, the southern Kalachuri and others were allowed to rule their autonomous provinces, paying an annual tribute to the Chalukya emperor.[61] Excavated inscriptions record titles such asMahapradhana (Chief minister),Sandhivigrahika, andDharmadhikari (chief justice). Some positions such asTadeyadandanayaka (commander of reserve army) were specialised in function while all ministerial positions included the role ofDandanayaka (commander), showing that cabinet members were trained as army commanders as well as in general administrative skills.[62]
The kingdom was divided into provinces such asBanavasi-12000,Nolambavadi-32000,Gangavadi-96000, each name including the number of villages under its jurisdiction. The large provinces were divided into smaller provinces containing a lesser number of villages, as inBelavola-300. The big provinces were calledMandala and under them wereNadu further divided intoKampanas (groups of villages) and finally aBada (village). AMandala was under a member of the royal family, a trusted feudatory or a senior official.Tailapa II himself was in charge of Tardavadi province during theRashtrakuta rule. Chiefs ofMandalas were transferable based on political developments. For example, an official named Bammanayya administered Banavasi-12000 under King Someshvara III but was later transferred to Halasige-12000. Women from the royal family also administeredNadus andKampanas. Army commanders were titledMahamandaleshwaras and those who headed aNadu were entitledNadugouvnda.[63]
The Western Chalukyas minted punch-marked goldpagodas with Kannada andNagari legends[64] which were large, thin gold coins with several varying punch marks on the obverse side. They usually carried multiple punches of symbols such as a stylised lion,Sri in Kannada,[65] a spearhead, the king's title, a lotus and others. Jayasimha II used the legendSri Jaya, Someshvara I issued coins withSri Tre lo ka malla, Someshvara II usedBhuvaneka malla, Lakshmideva's coin carriedSri Lasha, and Jagadhekamalla II coinage had the legendSri Jagade. The Alupas, a feudatory, minted coins with theKannada andNagari legendSri Pandya Dhanamjaya.[66]Lakkundi inGadag district and Sudi inDharwad district were the main mints (Tankhashaley). Their heaviest gold coin was the Gadyanaka, weighing 96 grains. Other coins included the Dramma (65 grains), the Kalanju (48 grains), the Kasu (15 grains), the Manjadi (2.5 grains), the Akkam (1.25 grains), and the Pana (9.6 grains).[67]
_in_Kalleshvara_temple_at_Bagali_1.JPG)
Agriculture was the empire's main source of income through taxes on land and produce. The majority of the people lived in villages and worked farming the staple crops ofrice,pulses, andcotton in the dry areas and sugarcane in areas having sufficient rainfall, withareca andbetel being the chief cash crops. The living conditions of the labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords. If peasants were disgruntled the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the ruler who was mistreating them, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labor.[68]
Taxes were levied on mining and forest products, and additional income was raised through tolls for the use of transportation facilities. The state also collected fees from customs, professional licenses, and judicial fines.[69] Records show horses and salt were taxed as well as commodities (gold, textiles, perfumes) and agricultural produce (black pepper, paddy, spices, betel leaves, palm leaves, coconuts and sugar). Land tax assessment was based on frequent surveys evaluating the quality of land and the type of produce. Chalukya records specifically mention black soil and red soil lands in addition to wetland, dry land and wasteland in determining taxation rates.[70]
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Key figures mentioned in inscriptions from rural areas were the Gavundas (officials) orGoudas. The Gavundas belonged to two levels of economic strata, thePraja Gavunda (people's Gavunda) and thePrabhu Gavunda (lord of Gavundas). They served the dual purpose of representing the people before the rulers as well as functioning as state appointees for tax collection and the raising of militias. They are mentioned in inscriptions related to land transactions, irrigation maintenance, village tax collection and village council duties.[71]
The organisation of corporate enterprises became common in the 11th century.[72] Almost all arts and crafts were organised into guilds and work was done on a corporate basis; records do not mention individual artists, sculptors and craftsman. Only in the regions ruled by the Hoysala did individual sculptors etched their names below their creations.[73] Merchants organised themselves into powerfulguilds that transcended political divisions, allowing their operations to be largely unaffected by wars and revolutions. Their only threat was the possibility of theft frombrigands when their ships and caravans traveled to distant lands. Powerful South Indian merchant guilds included theManigramam, theNagarattar and theAnjuvannam. Local guilds were callednagaram, while theNanadesis were traders from neighbouring kingdoms who perhaps mixed business with pleasure. The wealthiest and most influential and celebrated of all South Indian merchant guilds was the self-styledAinnurruvar, also known as the 500Svamis of Ayyavolepura (Brahmins andMahajanas of present-dayAihole),[74][75] who conducted extensive land and sea trade and thereby contributed significantly to the total foreign trade of the empire. It fiercely protected its trade obligations (Vira Bananjudharma or law of the noble merchants) and its members often recorded their achievements ininscriptions (prasasti). Five hundred such excavatedPrasasti inscriptions, with their own flag and emblem, the bull, record their pride in their business.
Rich traders contributed significantly to the king's treasury through paying import and export taxes. The edicts of the AiholeSvamis mention trade ties with foreign kingdoms such asChera,Pandya, Maleya (Malaysia),Magadh,Kaushal,Saurashtra, Kurumba, Kambhoja (Cambodia),Lata (Gujarat), Parasa (Persia) andNepal. Travelling both land and sea routes, these merchants traded mostly in precious stones, spices and perfumes, and other specialty items such as camphor. Business flourished in precious stones such as diamonds,lapis lazuli,onyx,topaz,carbuncles andemeralds. Commonly traded spices were cardamom, saffron, and cloves, while perfumes included the by-products of sandalwood,bdellium, musk,civet and rose. These items were sold either in bulk or hawked on streets by local merchants in towns.[76] The Western Chalukyas controlled most of South India's west coast and by the 10th century they had established extensive trade ties with theTang Empire ofChina, the empires ofSoutheast Asia and theAbbasid Caliphate inBaghdad, and by the 12th-century Chinese fleets were frequenting Indian ports. Exports toSong dynasty China included textiles, spices, medicinal plants, jewels, ivory, rhino horn, ebony and camphor. The same products also reached ports in the west such asDhofar andAden. The final destinations for those trading with the west were Persia, Arabia and Egypt.[77] The thriving trade center ofSiraf, a port on the eastern coast of the Persian Gulf, served an international clientele of merchants including those from the Chalukya empire who were feasted by wealthy local merchants during business visits. An indicator of the Indian merchants' importance in Siraf comes from records describing dining plates reserved for them.[78] In addition to this, Siraf receivedaloe wood, perfumes, sandalwood and condiments. The most expensive import to South India were Arabian horse shipments, this trade being monopolised by Arabs and local Brahmin merchants. TravellerMarco Polo, in the 13th century, recorded that the breeding of horses never succeeded in India due to differing climatic, soil and grassland conditions.[77]
_in_Kedareshvara_temple_at_Balligavi4.JPG)
The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of theWestern Ganga dynasty by the Cholas inGangavadi, was a setback toJainism. The growth ofVirashaivism in the Chalukya territory andVaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decreased interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms continued to be religiously tolerant.[79] Two locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory continued to be patronaged,Shravanabelagola andKambadahalli. The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread ofAdi Shankara'sAdvaita philosophy.[80] The only places of Buddhist worship that remained during the Western Chalukya rule were atDambal andBalligavi.[81] There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time, suggesting that the religious transition was smooth.
Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith has been debated, the movement grew through its association withBasavanna in the 12th century.[82][83] Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached of a faith without acaste system. In hisVachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada and wrote "work is worship" (Kayakave Kailasa). Also known as theLingayats (worshipers of theLinga, the universal symbol of Shiva), these Virashaivas questioned many of the established norms of society such as the belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth and supported the remarriage of widows and the marriage of unwed older women.[84] This gave more social freedom to women but they were not accepted into the priesthood.Ramanujacharya, the head of the Vaishnava monastery inSrirangam, traveled to the Hoysala territory and preached the way of devotion (bhakti marga). He later wroteSribhashya, a commentary on BadarayanaBrahmasutra, a critique on theAdvaita philosophy of Adi Shankara.[85] Ramanujacharya's stay inMelkote resulted in the Hoysala KingVishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism, a faith that his successors also followed.
The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture in South India was profound. Important works of metaphysics and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers were written over the next centuries.Akka Mahadevi,Allama Prabhu, and a host of Basavanna's followers, including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja wrote hundreds of poems calledVachanas in praise ofLord Shiva.[86] The esteemed scholars in the Hoysala court,Harihara andRaghavanka, were Virashaivas.[87] This tradition continued into theVijayanagar empire with such well-known scholars as Singiraja, Mallanarya, Lakkana Dandesa and other prolific writers of Virashaiva literature.[88][89] The Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagar empire were followers of Vaishnavism and a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya exists today in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara.[90] Scholars in the succeeding Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works supporting the teachings of Ramanujacharya.[91] King Vishnuvardhana built many temples after his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.[92]
_sculpture_on_vesara_tower_in_the_Kedareshvara_temple_at_Balligavi.jpg)
The rise ofVeerashaivaism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailingHindu caste system which retained royal support. The social role of women largely depended on their economic status and level of education in this relatively liberal period. Freedom was more available to women in the royal and affluent urban families. Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Chalukya queen Chandala Devi's andKalachuris of Kalyani queen Sovala Devi's skill in dance and music. The compositions of thirtyVachana women poets included the work of the 12th-centuryVirashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi whose devotion to thebhakti movement is well known.[93] Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs such as princess Akkadevi, (sister of King Jayasimha II) who fought and defeated rebellious feudals.[94][95] Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood indicating thatSati (a custom in which a dead man's widow used toimmolate herself on her husband's funeralpyre) though present was on a voluntary basis.[96] Ritual deaths to achieve salvation were seen among theJains who preferred to fast to death (Sallekhana), while people of some other communities chose to jump on spikes (Shoolabrahma) or walking into fire on an eclipse.
In a Hindu caste system that was conspicuously present,Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position as providers of knowledge and local justice. These Brahmins were normally involved in careers that revolved around religion and learning with the exception of a few who achieved success in martial affairs. They were patronised by kings, nobles and wealthy aristocrats who persuaded learned Brahmins to settle in specific towns and villages by making them grants of land and houses. The relocation of Brahmin scholars was calculated to be in the interest of the kingdom as they were viewed as persons detached from wealth and power and their knowledge was a useful tool to educate and teach ethical conduct and discipline in local communities. Brahmins were also actively involved in solving local problems by functioning as neutral arbiters (Panchayat).[97]
Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian while the partaking of different kinds of meat was popular among other communities. Marketplace vendors sold meat from domesticated animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and fowl as well as exotic meat including partridge, hare, wild fowl and boar.[98] People found indoor amusement by attending wrestling matches (Kusti) or watching animals fight such as cock fights and ram fights or by gambling. Horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime.[99] In addition to these leisurely activities, festivals and fairs were frequent and entertainment by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists and musicians was often provided.[100]
Schools and hospitals are mentioned in records and these were built in the vicinity of temples. Marketplaces served as open air town halls where people gathered to discuss and ponder local issues. Choirs, whose main function was to sing devotional hymns, were maintained at temple expense. Young men were trained to sing in choirs in schools attached to monasteries such as HinduMatha, JainPalli and BuddhistVihara.[101] These institutions provided advanced education in religion and ethics and were well equipped with libraries (Saraswati Bhandara). Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit. Schools of higher learning were calledBrahmapuri (orGhatika orAgrahara). Teaching Sanskrit was a near monopoly of Brahmins who received royal endowments for their cause. Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen.[102] The four most popular subjects with royal students were Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi) and Philosophy (Anvikshiki), subjects that are mentioned as early asKautilyasArthashastra.
The Western Chalukya era was one of substantial literary activity in the native Kannada, and Sanskrit.[103] In a golden age of Kannada literature,[104]Jain scholars wrote about the life ofTirthankaras andVirashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems calledVachanas. Nearly three hundred contemporaryVachanakaras (Vachana poets) including thirty women poets have been recorded.[105][106] Early works byBrahmin writers were on the epics,Ramayana,Mahabharata,Bhagavata,Puranas andVedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, encyclopedia etc. were written for the first time.[107][108]
Most notable among Kannada scholars wereRanna, grammarianNagavarma II, ministerDurgasimha and the Virashaiva saint and social reformerBasavanna. Ranna who was patronised by king Tailapa II and Satyashraya is one among the "three gems of Kannada literature".[109] He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by King Tailapa II and has five major works to his credit. Of these,Saahasabheema Vijayam (orGada yuddha) of 982 inChampu style is a eulogy of his patron King Satyashraya whom he compares to Bhima in valour and achievements and narrates the duel betweenBhima andDuryodhana using clubs on the eighteenth day of theMahabharata war.[110] He wroteAjitha purana in 993 describing the life of the secondTirthankara, Ajitanatha.[111][112]
Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadhekamalla II made contributions to Kannada literature in various subjects.[113][114] His works in poetry, prosody, grammar and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged.Kavyavalokana in poetics,Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar andVastukosa a lexicon (with Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words) are some of his comprehensive contributions.[115] Several works on medicine were produced during this period. Notable among them were Jagaddala Somanatha'sKarnataka Kalyana Karaka.[116]
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A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada calledVachanas developed during this time. They were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna,Akka Mahadevi,Allama Prabhu,Channabasavanna andSiddharama are the best known among them.[117]
In Sanskrit, a well-known poem (Mahakavya) in 18 cantos calledVikramankadeva Charita by Kashmiri poetBilhana recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI. The work narrates the episode of Vikramaditya VI's accession to the Chalukya throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.[118] The great Indian mathematicianBhāskara II (bornc. 1114) flourished during this time. From his own account in his famous workSiddhanta Siromani (c. 1150, comprising theLilavati,Bijaganita on algebra,Goladhaya on the celestial globe andGrahaganita on planets) Bijjada Bida (modernBijapur) was his native place.[119]
Manasollasa orAbhilashitartha Chintamani by kingSomeshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society. This is an example of an early encyclopedia in Sanskrit covering many subjects including medicine, magic, veterinary science, valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, amusements etc.[120] While the book does not give any of dealt topics particular hierarchy of importance, it serves as a landmark in understanding the state of knowledge in those subjects at that time.[121] Someshwara III also authored a biography of his famous father Vikramaditya VI called Vikraman-Kabhyudaya. The text is a historical prose narrative which also includes a graphic description of the geography and people ofKarnataka.[122]
A Sanskrit scholarVijnaneshwara became famous in the field of legal literature for hisMitakshara, in the court of Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, Mitakshara is a treatise on law (commentary onYajnavalkya) based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of modern India. AnEnglishman Colebrooke later translated intoEnglish the section on inheritance giving it currency in the British Indian court system.[123] Some important literary works of the time related to music and musical instruments wereSangita Chudamani,Sangita Samayasara andSangita Ratnakara.[124]
The reign of Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. The architecture designed during this time served as a conceptual link between theBadami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and theHoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.[125][126] The art of the Western Chalukyas is sometimes called the "Gadag style" after the number of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra River-Krishna Riverdoab region of present-dayGadag district in Karnataka.[127] The dynasty's temple building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan, more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka.[128][129] Apart from temples, the dynasty's architecture is well known for the ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) which served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved in Lakkundi. These stepped well designs were later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in the coming centuries.[130][131]
TheKasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi (Gadag district),[132][133] theDodda Basappa Temple atDambal (Gadag district),[134][135] theMallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti (Bellary district),[133][136] theKallesvara Temple at Bagali (Davangere district),[136][137] theSiddhesvara Temple atHaveri (Haveri district),[138][139] the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (Dharwad district),[140] theMahadeva Temple at Itagi (Koppal district),[141][142] theKaitabheshvara Temple at Kubatur,[143] and theKedareshvara Temple atBalligavi are the finest examples produced by the later Chalukya architects.[144] The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple with its well executed sculptures is an exquisite example of decorative detail. The intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it "Emperor of Temples" (devalaya chakravarti) and relates that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of king Vikramaditya VI.[145][146] The Kedareswara Temple (1060) atBalligavi is an example of a transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style.[147][148] The Western Chalukyas built temples inBadami andAihole during their early phase of temple building activity, such as Mallikarjuna Temple, the Yellamma Temple and theBhutanatha group of Temples.[149][150]
Thevimana of their temples (tower over the shrine) is a compromise in detail between the plain stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.[126] To the credit of the Western Chalukya architects is the development of thelathe turned (tuned) pillars and use ofSoapstone (Chloritic Schist) as basic building and sculptural material, a very popular idiom in later Hoysala temples. They popularised the use of decorativeKirtimukha (demon faces) in their sculptures. Famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects who were natives of places such as Balligavi.[151] The artistic wall decor and the general sculptural idiom wasdravidian architecture.[131] This style is sometimes calledKarnata dravida, one of the notable traditions in Indian architecture.[152]
_of_King_Vikramaditya_VI_in_the_Mahadeva_temple_at_Itagi.jpg)
The local languageKannada was mostly used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs. Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in the Kannada language while the remaining are inSanskrit.[153][11] More inscriptions in Kannada are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than any other king prior to the 12th century,[154] many of which have been deciphered and translated by historians of the Archaeological Survey of India.[13] Inscriptions were generally either on stone (Shilashasana) or copper plates (Tamarashasana). This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, impetus to which came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (calledLingayatism) who expressed their closeness to their deity in the form of simple lyrics called Vachanas.[155] At an administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. When bilingual inscriptions were written, the section stating the title, genealogy, origin myths of the king and benedictions were generally done in Sanskrit. Kannada was used to state terms of the grants, including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses. This ensured the content was clearly understood by the local people without any ambiguity.[156]
In addition to inscriptions, chronicles calledVamshavalis were written to provide historical details of dynasties. Writings in Sanskrit included poetry, grammar, lexicon, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction and drama. In Kannada, writings on secular subjects became popular. Some well-known works areChandombudhi, a prosody, andKarnataka Kadambari, a romance, both written byNagavarma I, a lexicon calledRannakanda by Ranna (993), a book on medicine calledKarnataka-Kalyanakaraka by Jagaddala Somanatha, the earliest writing on astrology calledJatakatilaka by Sridharacharya (1049), a writing on erotics calledMadanakatilaka by Chandraraja, and an encyclopedia calledLokapakara by Chavundaraya II (1025).[108][157]
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