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Jewish religious movements, sometimes called "denominations", include diverse groups withinJudaism which have developed amongJews from ancient times.Samaritans are also consideredethnic Jews by theChief Rabbinate of Israel, although they are frequently classified by experts as a sisterHebrew people, who practice a separate branch ofIsraelite religion. Today in the West, the most prominent divisions are between traditionalistOrthodox movements (includingHaredi ultratraditionalist andModern Orthodox branches) and modernist movements such asReform Judaism originating in late 18th century Europe,Conservative (Masorti) originating in 19th century Europe, and other smaller ones,[1] including theReconstructionist andRenewal movements which emerged later in the 20th century in the United States.
In Israel, variation is moderately similar,[2][3][4][5] differing from the West in having roots in theOld Yishuv and pre-to-early-stateYemenite infusion, among other influences. For statistical and practical purposes, the distinctions there are based upon a person's attitude to religion. Most Jewish Israelis classify themselves as "secular" (hiloni), "traditional" (masortim), "religious" (dati) orultra-religious (haredi).[6][5]
The western and Israeli movementsdiffer in their views on various issues (as do those of other Jewish communities). These issues include the level of observance, the methodology for interpreting and understandingJewish law,biblical authorship,textual criticism, and the nature or role ofthe messiah (ormessianic age). Across these movements, there are marked differences inliturgy, especially in the language in which services are conducted, with the more traditional movements emphasizing Hebrew. The sharpest theological division occurs between traditional Orthodox and the greater number of non-Orthodox Jews adhering to other movements (or to none), such that the non-Orthodox are sometimes referred to collectively as the "liberal" or "progressive streams".
Other divisions of Judaism in the world reflect being moreethnically and geographically rooted, e.g.,Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), andBene Israel (among theancient Jewish communities of India). Normatively, Judaism excludes from its composition certain groups that may name or consider themselves ethnic Jews but hold key beliefs in sharp contradiction, for example, modern or ancientMessianic Jews.
Some Jews reject the termdenomination as a label for different groups and ideologies within Judaism, arguing that the notion of denomination has a specifically Christian resonance that does not translate easily into the Jewish context. However, in recent years theAmerican Jewish Year Book has adopted "denomination", as have many scholars and theologians.[7]
Commonly used terms aremovements,[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][3][15][16][17][18] as well asdenominations,[19][20][21][22][7][15][23][24]varieties,[1]traditions,[25]groupings,[17][26]streams,[27]branches,[28]sectors andsects (for some groups),[29][30]trends,[31] and such. Sometimes, as an option, only three main currents of Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative and Reform) are named traditions, and divisions within them are called movements.
The Jewish groups themselves reject characterization assects. Sects are traditionally defined as religious subgroups that have broken off from the main body, and this separation usually becomes irreparable over time. Within Judaism, individuals and families often switch affiliation, and individuals are free to marry one another, although the major denominations disagree onwho is a Jew. It is not unusual for clergy and Jewish educators trained in one of the liberal denominations to serve in another, and left with no choice, many small Jewish communities combine elements of several movements to achieve a viable level of membership.
Relationships between Jewish religious movements are varied; they are sometimes marked by interdenominational cooperation outside of the realm ofhalakha (Jewish law), such as theNew York Board of Rabbis, and sometimes not. Some of the movements sometimes cooperate by uniting with one another in community federations and in campus organizations such as theHillel Foundation. Jewish religious denominations are distinct from, but often linked to,Jewish ethnic divisions andJewish political movements.
TheSamaritans consider themselves direct descendants of the tribes ofEphraim andManasseh in theNorthern Kingdom of Israel, which was conquered byAssyria in 722 BC.[32] Modern genetics suggests some truth in both the Samaritan claims and the Talmudic Jews' claims.[33]
The Samaritan Torah preserves a version of the Torah in slightly altered forms. The first historical references to the Samaritans date from theBabylonian captivity. According to the Talmud, the Samaritans are to be treated as Jews in matters in which their practices conform to the mainstream, but are otherwise treated as non-Jews. The Samaritans have dwindled to two communities of about 840 individuals. One such community is located in the Israeli city ofHolon, while the other is located nearNablus onMount Gerizim, in the West Bank .[32]
Today, Samaritans must officially undergo a formal conversion to Judaism in order to be considered Jewish. One example is Israeli TV personality Sophie Tzedaka, who was raised Samaritan and converted to Judaism at the age of 18.[34]
Prior to the destruction of theSecond Temple in 70 CE, Jews of the Roman province ofJudaea were divided into several movements, sometimes warring among themselves:Pharisees,Sadducees,Essenes,Zealots, and ultimatelyearly Christians. Many historic sources such asFlavius Josephus, theNew Testament and the recovered fragments of theDead Sea Scrolls, attest to the divisions among Jews at this time.Rabbinical writings from later periods, including theTalmud, further attest these ancient schisms.[35][36]
The main internal struggles during this era were between the Pharisees and the Sadducees, as well as the early Christians, and also the Essenes and Zealots. The Pharisees wanted to maintain the authority and traditions of classical Torah teachings and began the early teachings of theMishna, maintaining the authority of theSanhedrin, the supreme Jewish court. According to Josephus, the Sadducees differed from the Pharisees on a number of doctrinal grounds, notably rejecting ideas of life after death. They appear to have dominated the aristocracy and the temple, but their influence over the wider Jewish population was limited. The Essenes preached an ascetic way of life. The Zealots advocated armed rebellion against any foreign power such asRome. All were at violent logger-heads with each other, leading to the confusion and disunity that ended with the destruction of the Second Temple and the sacking ofJerusalem by Rome. TheJewish Christians were the original Jewish followers ofJesus. The radical interpretation ofMoses' Law by Jesus'disciples and their belief he is theSon of God, along with thedevelopment of the New Testament, ensured thatChristianity and Judaism would becomedistinctively different religions.[35][36]
Most streams of modern Judaism developed from the Pharisaic movement, which became known as Rabbinic Judaism (inHebrewYahadut Rabanit — יהדות רבנית) with the compilation of theOral Torah into theMishna. After theBar Kokhba revolt and the destruction of the Second Temple the other movements disappeared from the historical record, yet theSadducees probably kept on existing in a non-organized form for at least several more decades.[37][35][38]
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Non-Rabbinic Judaism—Sadducees,Nazarenes,Karaite Judaism, andHaymanot—contrasts with Rabbinic Judaism and does not recognize theOral Torah as a divine authority nor the rabbinic procedures used to interpret Jewish scripture.[39]
The tradition of theQara'im survives inKaraite Judaism, started in the early 9th century when non-rabbinic sages likeBenjamin Nahawandi and their followers took the rejection of the Oral Torah byAnan ben David to the new level of seeking the plain meaning of theTanakh's text. Karaite Jews accept only the Tanakh as divinely inspired, not recognizing the authority that Rabbinites ascribe to basic rabbinic works like theTalmud and theMidrashim.[40]
Haymanot (meaning "religion" in Ge'ez and Amharic) refers the Judaism practiced byEthiopian Jews. This version of Judaism differs substantially from Rabbinic Judaism but share significant similarities to Karaite Judaism and Samaritanism.[41] Sacred scriptures (the Orit) are written inGe'ez, notHebrew, However many words are ascribed in Hebrew.[42] Dietary laws are based strictly on the text of the Orit, without explication from ancillary commentaries. Holidays also differ, with some Rabbinic holidays not observed in Ethiopian Jewish communities, and some additional holidays, likeSigd.
Although there are numerous Jewish ethnic communities, there are several that are large enough to be considered predominant. Generally, they do not constitute separate religious branches within Judaism, but rather separate cultural traditions (nuschaot) and rites of prayer (minhagim).Ashkenazi Jews compose about 75% of the world's Jewish population.Sephardi Jews andMizrahi Jews compose the greatest part of the rest, with about 20% of the world's Jewish population. Israel has twoChief Rabbi—one for the Ashkenazic, another for the Sephardic with Mizrahi Jews.[43] The remaining 5% of Jews are divided among a wide array of small groups (such as various groups ofAfrican Jews, most prominently theBeta Israel from Ethiopia who follow theHaymanot branch of Judaism), some of which are nearing extinction as a result ofassimilation andintermarriage into surrounding non-Jewish cultures or surrounding Jewish cultures. Additionally, special ethnoreligious divisions are also theItalian rite Jews and the GreekRomaniote Jews. Both groups are considered distinct from Ashkenazim and Sephardim.
TheEnlightenment had a tremendous effect onJewish identity and on ideas about the importance and role of Jewish observance.[44] Due to the geographical distribution and the geopolitical entities affected by the Enlightenment, thisphilosophical revolution essentially affected only the Ashkenazi community; however, because of the predominance of the Ashkenazi community inIsraeli politics and inJewish leadership worldwide, the effects have been significant for all Jews.[44]
Sephardic Judaism is the practice of Judaism as observed by theSephardim (Iberian,Spanish-Portuguese Jews). TheMizrahi Jews (includingMaghrebi) are all Oriental Jewry. Some definitions of "Sephardic" also include Mizrahi, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions. So far as it is peculiar to themselves and not shared with other Jewish groups such as the Ashkenazim (German rite).[45][46][47]
Sephardim are primarily the descendants of Jews from theIberian Peninsula, such as mostJews from France andthe Netherlands. They may be divided into the families that left in theExpulsion of 1492 and those that remained ascrypto-Jews,Marranos and those who left in the following few centuries. In religious parlance, and by many in modern Israel, the term is used in a broader sense to include all Jews ofOttoman or other Asian or African backgrounds (Mizrahi Jews), whether or not they have any historic link to Spain, although some prefer to distinguish between Sephardim proper and Mizraḥi Jews.
Sephardic and Mizrachi Jewish synagogues are generally considered Orthodox orSephardic Haredim by non-Sephardic Jews, and are primarily run according to the Orthodox tradition, even though many of the congregants may not keep a level of observance on par with traditional Orthodox belief. For example, many congregants will drive to the synagogue on theShabbat, in violation ofhalakha, while discreetly entering the synagogue so as not to offend more observant congregants. However, not all Sephardim are Orthodox; among the pioneers of theReform Judaism movement in the 1820s there was the Sephardic congregationBeth Elohim inCharleston, South Carolina.[48][49] A part of the European Sephardim were also linked with the Judaic modernization.[50]
Unlike the predominantly Ashkenazic Reform, and Reconstructionist denominations, Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews who are not observant generally believe that Orthodox Judaism's interpretation and legislation ofhalakha is appropriate, and true to the original philosophy of Judaism. That being said, Sephardic and Mizrachi rabbis tend to hold different, and generally more lenient, positions onhalakha than their Ashkenazi counterparts, but since these positions are based on rulings of Talmudic scholars as well as well-documented traditions that can be linked back to well-known codifiers of Jewish law, Ashkenazic and Hasidic Rabbis do not believe that these positions are incorrect, but rather that they are the appropriate interpretation ofhalakha for Jews of Sephardic and Mizrachi descent.[45][47][51]
TheYemenite Jews—theDor Daim and other movements—use a separateBaladi-rite. The Yemenite and the Aramaic speakingKurdish Jews are the only communities who maintain the tradition of reading the Torah in the synagogue in both Hebrew and the AramaicTargum ("translation"). Most non-Yemenite synagogues have a specified person called a Baal Koreh, who reads from the Torah scroll when congregants are called to the Torah scroll for analiyah. In the Yemenite tradition, each person called to theTorah scroll for an aliyah reads for himself.[52]
TheShas, a religious political party in Israel, represents the interests of the Orthodox/Haredi Sephardim and Mizrahim.[53]
A relatively small but influential ethnoreligious group in the intellectual circles of Israel areItalian rite Jews (Italkim) who are neither Ashkenazi nor Sephardi. These are exclusively descendants of the ancient Roman Jewish community, not including later Ashkenazic and Sephardic migrants to Italy. They practice traditional Orthodox Judaism. The liturgy is served according to a specialItalian Nusach (Nusach ʾItalqi, a.k.a.Minhag B'nei Romì) and it has similarities with the nusach of the GreekRomaniote Jews.
The Romaniote Jews or the Romaniotes (Romanyotim) native to theEastern Mediterranean is the oldest Jewish community in Europe, whom name is refers to theEastern Roman Empire. They are also distinct from the Ashkenazim and Sephardim. But, nowadays, few synagogues still use theRomaniote nusach and minhag.
Hasidic Judaism—a revivalist movement—was founded byIsrael ben Eliezer (1700–1760), also known as theBaal Shem Tov, whose followers had previously called themselvesFreylechn ("happy ones") and now they call themselvesHasidim ("pious, holy ones"). His charismatic disciples attracted many followers among Ashkenazi Jews, and they also established numerous Hasidic groups across Europe. The Baal Shem Tov came at a time when the Jewish masses of Eastern Europe were reeling from the bewilderment and disappointment which were engendered in them by the two notorious Jewishfalse messiahs,Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) andJacob Frank (1726–1791), and their respectivefollowers. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life for many Jews in Eastern Europe. The Hasidim are organized into independent "courts" ordynasties, each dynasty is headed by its own hereditary spiritual leader-rebbe. Unlike other Ashkenazim, most Hasidim use some variation ofNusach Sefard, a blend of Ashkenazi and Sephardi liturgies, based on the innovations of theKabbalistIsaac Luria.Neo-Hasidism is a term which refers to trends of interest in the teachings of Kabbalah and Hasidism which are expressed by members of other existing Jewish movements.[54][55][56][57][58]
In the late 18th century, there was a serious schism between Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. European traditionalist Jews who rejected the Hasidic movement were dubbedMitnagdim ("opponents") by the followers of the Baal Shem Tov.Lithuania became the centre of this opposition under the leadership ofVilna Gaon (Elijah ben Solomon Zalman), which adopted the epithetsLitvishe (Yiddish word),Litvaks (in Slavic) orLita'im (in Hebrew) those epithets refer toHaredi Jews who are not Hasidim (and notHardalim orSephardic Haredim). Since then, all of the Hasidic Jewish groups have been theologically subsumed into mainstream Orthodox Judaism, particularly,Haredi Judaism, but cultural differences persist.[59][55][60][61][58][17][62] In the 19th century, the Lithuanian spirituality was mainly incorporated into theMusar movement.[63][64][65][66]
Late-18th-century Europe, and then the rest of the world, was swept by a group of intellectual, social and political movements that taken together were referred to as the Enlightenment. These movements promoted scientific thinking, free thought, and allowed people to question previously unshaken religious dogmas. Theemancipation of the Jews in many European communities, and theHaskalah movement started byMoses Mendelssohn, brought the Enlightenment to the Jewish community.[44]
In response to the challenges of integrating Jewish life with Enlightenment values, German Jews in the early 19th century began to develop the concept ofReform Judaism, adapting Jewish practice to the new conditions of an increasingly urbanized and secular community. Staunch opponents of the Reform movement became known asOrthodox Jews. Later, members of the Reform movement who felt that it was moving away from tradition too quickly formed theConservative movement.[67]
At the same time, the notion "traditional Judaism" includes the Orthodox with Conservative[17] or solely the Orthodox Jews[16] or exclusively pre-Hasidic pre-modern forms of Orthodoxy.[68]
Over time, three main movements emerged (Orthodox, Reform and Conservative Judaism).[17][16]
Orthodox Jews generally see themselves as practicing normative Judaism, rather than belonging to a particular movement. Within Orthodox Judaism, there is a spectrum of communities and practices, ranging from ultra-OrthodoxHaredi Judaism andJewish fundamentalism[69] toModern Orthodox Judaism (withNeo-Orthodoxy,Open Orthodoxy, andReligious Zionism). Orthodox Jews who opposed the Haskalah became known as Haredi Jews (Haredim), includingHardalim,Hasidim,Misnagdim (Lita'im), andSephardim Haredim. Orthodox Jews who were sympathetic to the Haskalah formed what became known as modern/neo-Orthodox Jews.[70][11][71][72][31][73][30][74] The German rabbiAzriel Hildesheimer is regarded as a Modern Orthodoxy founder,[75][76] while the father of neo-Orthodoxy was German rabbiSamson Raphael Hirsch, who proclaimed principleTorah im Derech Eretz—the strict observance of the Jewish Law in an active social life—in 1851, he become the rabbi of first Orthodox separatist group from Reform community ofFrankfurt am Main.[77][78] In addition, the "Centrist" Orthodoxy was represented by American rabbiJoseph B. Soloveitchik affiliated with theOrthodox Union.[79][76]
In Israel, Orthodox Judaism occupies a privileged position: solely an Orthodox rabbi may become theChief rabbi andChief military rabbi; and only Orthodox synagogues have the right to conduct Jewishmarriages.[5][73]
Reform Judaism, also known as Liberal (the "Liberal" label can refer only to the British branch)[28] or Progressive Judaism, originally began in Germany, the Netherlands and the United Statesc. 1820 as a reaction to modernity, stresses assimilation and integration with society and a personal interpretation of the Torah. The German rabbi and scholarAbraham Geiger with principles of Judaism as religion and not ethnicity, progressive revelation, historical-critical approach, the centrality of the Prophetic books, and superiority of ethical aspects to the ceremonial ones has become the main ideologist of the "Classical" Reform. Unlike traditional Judaism, the Reform rejects the concept of theJews as the chosen people.[8][80][11][81][13][82][83][84][85][49] There are transformations from the purism of "Classical" European to the "New Reform" in America with reincorporation some traditional Jewish elements.[86][87]
In the United States, at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, the Reform movement became the first in terms of numbers, ahead of Conservative Judaism.[88][89] In contrast, Israeli Reform is smaller one.[2][3]
Conservative orMasorti Judaism, originated in Germany in the 19th century on the ideological foundation of the Historical School studies,[90] but became institutionalized in the United States, where it was to become the largest Jewish movement[16][18][91] (however, in 1990 Reform Judaism already outpaced Conservatism by 3 percent).[88] After the division between Reform and Orthodox Judaism, the Conservative movement tried to provide Jews seeking liberalization of Orthodox theology and practice, such as female rabbi ordination, with a more traditional and halakhically-based alternative to Reform Judaism. It has spread to Ashkenazi communities in Anglophone countries and Israel.[9][92][11][93][2][3][94][95][18]
Neolog Judaism, a movement in theKingdom of Hungary and in itsterritories ceded in 1920, is similar to the more traditional branch of American Conservative Judaism.[96]
Communal Judaism, also referred to as יהדות חברתי (Yahadut Ḥevrati) in Hebrew, is a denomination that intertwines the ethnoreligious identity and indigenous tradition within the broader Jewish community. Unlike other movements which may emphasize theological nuances, Communal Judaism places a substantial focus on the social and communal aspects of Jewish life, alongside personal spiritual practices.
Practitioners are diverse, found globally with significant numbers in Israel and the United States, extending to European and Middle Eastern countries. This spread is reflective of the movement's inclusive approach to Jewish identity, welcoming those who align with its core values of maintaining communal traditions and customs without the stringent adherence to rabbinical interpretations that some other denominations might require.[97][98]
In terms of religious observance, adherents commonly engage in the lighting of Shabbat candles, recitation of Kiddush, and the enjoyment of communal meals replete with traditionalzemirot. This practice is designed to foster a sense of community and spiritual reflection, particularly on Shabbat where the use of technology is often set aside to maintain a contemplative state.[99][100]
Dietary laws within Communal Judaism adhere tokashrut, the set of Jewish dietary laws, with a focus on traditional observance. This includes abstaining from pork and shellfish and not mixing meat with dairy products, as outlined in the Torah.[101]
The connection to theLand of Israel stands as a central tenet of Communal Judaism, emphasizing a deep ethnic heritage and historical relationship with the land. This connection is celebrated and remembered through the observance of holidays and commemorations that reflect on the Jewish people's historical experiences of dispersal and return.[102][103]
Spiritually, Communal Judaism advocates for the integration of tradition into daily life, upholding a heart-centered approach to religious practice. While individual prayer is encouraged, the emphasis is placed on communal worship and support, reflecting the movement's overarching commitment to a life lived in close connection with one's community and heritage.[97][98]
The particular forms of Judaism which are practiced by the different Jewish denominations have been shaped by the immigration of the Ashkenazi Jewish communities, once concentrated in eastern and central Europe, to western and mostly Anglophone countries (in particular, in North America). In the middle of the 20th century, the institutional division of North American Jewry between Reform, Conservative, and Orthodox movements still reflected immigrant origins. Reform Jews at that time were predominantly of German or western European origin, while both Conservative and Orthodox Judaism came primarily from eastern European countries.[104]
The issue ofZionism was once very divisive in the Jewish community.Religious Zionism, a.k.a. "Nationalist Orthodoxy" (Dati-leumi) combines Zionism and Orthodox Judaism, based on the teachings of rabbisZvi Hirsch Kalischer andAbraham Isaac Kook. The nameHardalim orHaredi-leumi ("Nationalist Haredim") refers to the Haredi-oriented variety of Religious Zionism.[105][106][107][108][109][110][111] Another mode isReform Zionism as Zionist arm of Reform Judaism.[109]
Non-OrthodoxConservative leaders joined Zionist mission.[15]Reconstructionist Judaism also supports Zionism and "the modern state of Israel plays a central role in its ideology."[112]
Religious Zionists (datim) have embraced the Zionist movement, includingReligious Kibbutz Movement, as part of the divine plan to bring or speed up the messianic era.[17][106][113]
Before the creation of the State of Israel or the Holocaust, Zionism was rejected by most ultra-Orthodox and Reform Jews.[106][15] Ultra-Orthodox Jewishnon-Zionists believed that the return to Israel could only happen with the coming of theMessiah, and that a political attempt to re-establish aJewish state through human means alone was contrary to God's plan. Non-Zionists believed that Jews should integrate into the countries in which they lived, rather than moving to theLand of Israel. The original founders of Reform Judaism in Germany rejected traditional prayers for the restoration of Jerusalem. The view among Reform Jews that Judaism was strictly a religion rather than a nation with cultural identity, and that Jews should be assimilated, loyal citizens of their host nations, led to a non-Zionist, and sometimesanti-Zionist, stance. After events of the 20th century, most importantlythe Holocaust and the establishment of the modernState of Israel, opposition to Zionism largely disappeared within Reform Judaism.[106][114]
Among most religious non-Zionists, such asChabad, there is a de facto recognition of Israel, but only as a secular non-religious state.
A few of the fringe groups of the anti-Zionists, with marginal ideology, does not recognize the legitimacy of the Israeli state. Among them are both the Orthodox (theSatmar Hasidism,Edah HaChareidis,Neturei Karta) and Reform (American Council for Judaism).[17][114]
In addition, according to some contemporary scholars, Religious Zionism stands at least outside of Rabbinic Judaism or ever shoots off Judaism as such.[115][107]
Among the most striking differences between the Jewish movements in the 21st century is their response to pressures of assimilation, such asintermarriage between Jews and non-Jews.[116] Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis have been most accepting of intermarried couples, with some rabbis willing to officiate in mixed religious ceremonies, although most insist that children in such families be raised strictly Jewish. Conservative rabbis are not permitted to officiate in such marriages, but are supportive of couples when the non-Jewish partner wishes to convert to Judaism and raise children as Jewish.[117]
Crypto-Judaism is the secret adherence to Judaism by people who publicly profess another faith; practitioners of Crypto-Judaism are referred to as "crypto-Jews" (origin from Greek kryptos – κρυπτός, 'hidden').[118] Nowadays, in whole, Crypto-Judaism movements are a historical phenomenon.
In the United States,Reform rabbi Jacques Cukierkorn is one of the leaders of the outreach to the descendants of those Crypto-Jews who wish to renew their ties with the Jewish people.[119][better source needed]
The subgroups of Crypto-Jews are as follows:
TheBeta Israel (House of Israel), also known as Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish community that developed inEthiopia andlived there for centuries. Most of the Beta Israel emigrated to Israel in the late 20th century. They practicedHaymanot, a religion which is generally recognized as a non-Rabbinic form of Judaism (in Israel, they practice a mixture of Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism). To the Beta Israel, the holiest book is theOrit (a word which means the "law"), and it consists of theTorah and the Books ofJoshua,Judges andRuth. Until the middle of the 20th century, the Beta Israel of Ethiopia were the only modern Jewish group which practiced a monastic tradition which the monks adhered to by living in monasteries which were separated from the Jewish villages.[120]
The Crimean Karaites (a.k.a. Karaims) are an ethnicity which is derived fromTurkicKaraim-speaking adherents ofKaraite Judaism in Eastern Europe, especially inCrimea. They were probably Jewish by origin, but due to political pressure and other reasons, many of them began to claim that they wereTurks, descendants of theKhazars. During the era when Crimea was a part of theRussian Empire, the Crimean Karaite leaders persuaded the Russian rulers to exempt Karaites from the anti-Semitic regulations which were imposed upon Jews. These Karaites were recognized as non-Jews during theNazi occupation. Some of them even served in theSS. The ideology of de-Judaization and the revival ofTengrism were imbued with the works of the contemporary leaders of the Karaites in Crimea. While the members of several Karaite congregations were registered as Turks, some of them retained Jewish customs. In the 1990s, many Karaites emigrated to Israel, under theLaw of Return.[121][122] The largest Karaite community has since then resided in Israel.
Igbo people of Nigeria who practice a form of Judaism are referred to as Igbo Jews. Judaism has been documented in parts of Nigeria since the precolonial period, from as early as the 1500s, but is not known to have been practiced in the Igbo region in precolonial times. Nowadays, up to 30,000 Igbos are practicing some form of Judaism.[123]
TheSubbotniks are a movement of Jews ofRussian ethnic origin which split off from otherSabbatarians in the late 18th century. The majority of the Subbotniks practicedRabbinic andKaraite Judaism, a minority of them practicedSpiritual Christianity.[124][125] Subbotnik families settled in theHoly Land which was then a part of theOttoman Empire, in the 1880s, as part of theZionistFirst Aliyah in order to escape oppression in theRussian Empire and later, most of them married other Jews. Their descendants included Israeli Jews such asAlexander Zaïd, Major-General Alik Ron,[126] and the mother ofAriel Sharon.[127]
Additionally, a number of smaller groups have emerged:
A type of Judaism that is predominantly practiced in African communities, both inside and outsideAfrica (such asNorth America). It is theologically characterized by the selective acceptance of the Judaic faith (in some cases, such selective acceptance has historical circumstances), and the belief system of Black Judaism is significantly different from the belief system of the mainstream movements of Judaism. In addition, although Black Judaic communities adopt Judaic practices such as the celebration of Jewish holidays and the recital of Jewish prayers, some of them are generally not considered legitimate Jews by mainstream Jewish societies.[128][129]
Rather than a type, Judaism as practiced by theAbayudaya, in eastern Uganda and in Israel, is devout in keeping western halakha, especially as led by the Reform and Conservative movements, with whom most Abayudaya community members in Uganda affiliate.[130]Gershom Sizomu, the spiritual leader of the Abayudaya and Rosh Yeshiva, first native-born black rabbi in sub-SaharanAfrica,[131] also the first chief rabbi of Uganda,[132] and since 2016 a Member of Uganda Parliament,[133] is a graduate of theAmerican Jewish University inLos Angeles, California receiving ordination under the auspices of theConservative movement in 2008. In June 2016, Rabbi Shlomo Riskin led a Beit Din that performed an Orthodox conversion for thePutti community in Uganda.[134][135]
Formed in the early 20th century by Alfred G. Moses andMorris Lichtenstein, Jewish Science was founded as a counterweight Jewish movement toChristian Science. Jewish Science sees God as a force or energy penetrating the reality of the Universe and emphasis is placed upon the role ofaffirmative prayer in personal healing and spiritual growth. The Society of Jewish Science in New York is the institutional arm of the movement regularly publishingThe Interpreter, the movement's primary literary publication.[136]
Founded by rabbiMordecai Kaplan, the 1922 American split from Conservative Judaism that views Judaism as a progressively evolving civilization with focus on Jewish community.[11][137][138][139][112][140] The central organization is "Reconstructing Judaism". Assessments of its impact range from being recognized as the 4th major stream of Judaism[11][137][138][141][16] to described as a smaller movement.[142] As noted, Reconstructionism is a smaller movement, but its ideas significantly impacted Jewish life in the America.[15][143]
Anontheistic worldwide movement that emphasizes Jewish culture and history as the sources of Jewish identity. Originated inDetroit in 1963 with the founding figure, Reform rabbiSherwin Wine, in 1969 was established theSociety for Humanistic Judaism.[144][145]
Theneo-Hasidic movement inspired by thecounterculture of the 1960s and founded in the late 1960s inSan Francisco (where opened the House of Love and Prayer), then in Israel, by a musician, Lubavich's Hasidic rabbiShlomo Carlebach for the return of secular youth to the bosom of Orthodox Judaism. The movement has no organisational agenda and promotesCarlebach minyan, a song-filled form of Jewish worship.[146][147]
Partly syncretistic movement founded in the mid-1970s by ex-Lubavich's Hasidic rabbiZalman Schachter-Shalomi and rooted in the counterculture of the 1960s and theHavurat Shalom group. The "Bnei ʻOr" (Songs of Light) inPhiladelphia—the first Renewal community—later was established the ambrella organisation "ALEPH: the Alliance for Jewish Renewal". Its syncretism includes Kabbalah,neo-Hasidism, Reconstructionist Judaism, Western Buddhist meditation,Sufism,New Age, feminism, liberalism, and so on, tends to embrace theecstatic worship style. Renewal congregations tend to be inclusive on the subject of who is a Jew and had avoided affiliation with any Jewish communities.[146][148]
The term is occasionally applied to describe either individuals or new congregations, especially congregations which were established in the US in 1984 by rabbiDavid Weiss Halivni, such as theUnion for Traditional Judaism, located between the Conservative and Modern Orthodox.[149][150] While most scholars consider "Union for Traditional Judaism" (formerly Union for Traditional Conservative Judaism) as a new movement, some attribute it to the right wing of Conservative Judaism.[151]
A "New Age Judaism"[152] worldwide organisation established in 1984 by American rabbiPhilip Berg, that popularizes Jewish mysticism among a universal audience.[153][154]
A Haredi sect formed in the 1980s by Israeli-Canadian rabbiShlomo Helbrans, follows a strict version of halakha, including its own unique practices such as lengthy prayer sessions,arranged marriages between teenagers, and head-to-toe coverings for females.[155]
A movement founded byAvi Weiss in the late 1990s in US, with its own schools for religious ordination, both for men (Yeshivat Chovevei Torah) and women (Yeshivat Maharat). The movement declarates liberal, or inclusive Orthodoxy with women's ordination, full accepting LGBT members, and reducing stringent rules for conversion.[156]
A controversial ultra-Orthodox group with a Jewish burqa-style covering of a woman's entire body, including a veil covering the face.[157] Also known as the "Taliban Women" and the "Taliban Mothers" (נשות הטאליבן).[158]
Made up of followers who seek to combine parts of Rabbinic Judaism with a belief in Jesus as the Messiah and otherJewish Christian and western Christian beliefs.[159][160] It is not regarded as Judaism by the major movements of Judaism, and it is considered a form ofProtestantChristianity.[note 1] People who had become Messianic Jews as, in fact, Christians were not therefore eligible for Aliyah under theLaw of Return.[162] "Scholars are divided as to whether to call Messianic Judaism a Christian or Jewish Sect."[163]
Remark:Baal teshuva movement—a description of the return of secular Jews to religious Judaism and involved with all the Jewish movements.
Already in the 1980s, 20–30 percent of members of the largest American Jewish communities, such as of New York City orMiami, rejected a denominational label.[164] And "Israeli Democracy Index" commissioned in 2013 by theIsrael Democracy Institute found that the two thirds of respondents said they felt no connection to any denomination, or declined to respond.[165]
The very idea of Jewish denominationalism is contested by some Jews and Jewishnon-denominational organisations, which consider themselves to be "trans-denominational" or "post-denominational".[166][148][167][168][169] The term "trans-denominational" also applied to describe new movements located on the religious continuum between some major streams, as an instance,Conservadox (Union for Traditional Judaism).[149][150]
A variety of new Jewish organisations are emerging that lack such affiliations:
Organizations such as these believe that the formal divisions that have arisen among the "denominations" in contemporary Jewish history are unnecessarily divisive, as well as religiously and intellectually simplistic. According to Rachel Rosenthal, "the post-denominational Jew refuses to be labeled or categorized in a religion that thrives on stereotypes. He has seen what the institutional branches of Judaism have to offer and believes that a better Judaism can be created."[173] Such Jews might, out of necessity, affiliate with a synagogue associated with a particular movement, but their own personal Jewish ideology is often shaped by a variety of influences from more than one denomination.
Noahidism, Noahides, or Bnei Noah (Hebrew:בני נח, "Sons of Noah") is anew religious movement which is based upon theSeven Laws of Noah. Historically, the Hebrew termBnei Noah has been applied to all non-Jews because Jews believe that they are thedescendants of Noah.[174] Nowadays, however, it is specifically used to refer to those "Righteous Gentiles" who observe the Seven Laws of Noah. According toJewish law, non-Jews (Gentiles) are not obligated toconvert to Judaism, but they are required to observe the Seven Laws of Noah in order to be assured that they will have a place in theWorld to Come (Olam Ha-Ba), the final reward of the righteous. The modern Noahide movement was founded in the 1990s by Orthodox rabbis from Israel (mainly tied Hasidic and Zionist).[175][176]
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Kohler, Kaufmann;Harkavy, Abraham de (1901–1906)."Karaites and Karaism". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Rosenthal, Herman; Hurwitz, S. (1901–1906)."Subbotniki ("Sabbatarians")". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. This article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain: Singer, Isidore; Greenstone, Julius H. (1901–1906)."Noachian Laws". InSinger, Isidore; et al. (eds.).The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.
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