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Japanese calligraphy (書道,shodō), also calledshūji (習字), is a form ofcalligraphy, or artistic writing, of theJapanese language.Written Japanese was originally based onChinese characters only, but the advent of thehiragana andkatakana Japanese syllabaries resulted in intrinsically Japanese calligraphy styles.
The term shodō (書道, "way of writing") is of Chinese origin and is widely used to describe the art ofChinese calligraphy during the medievalTang dynasty.[1] Early Japanese calligraphy was originated fromChinese calligraphy. Many of its principles and techniques are very similar, and it recognizes the same basic writing styles:
A number of tools are used to create a work of modern calligraphy.[4]
During preparation, water is poured into the inkstone and the inkstick is ground against it, mixing the water with the dried ink to liquefy it. As this is a time-consuming process, modern-day beginners frequently use bottled liquid ink called Bokuju (墨汁,bokujū) . More advanced students are encouraged to grind their own ink. Paper is usually placed on a desk, while a large piece of paper may be placed on the floor or even on the ground (for a performance).
The brushes come in various shapes and sizes, and are usually made using animal hair bristles. Typical animal hair may come from goats, sheep, or horses. The handle may be made from wood, bamboo, plastic or other materials.[6]
The Chinese roots of Japanese calligraphy go back to the 13th century BC,[7] to the lateShang dynasty, a time whenpictographs wereinscribed on bone for religious purposes. When this writing developed into an instrument of administration for the state, the need for a uniform script was felt andLi Si, prime minister in the Chinese dynasty ofQin, standardized ascript and its way of being written. He sanctioned a form of script based on squares of uniform size into which allcharacters could be written from eight strokes. He also devised rules of composition where horizontal strokes are written first and characters are composed starting from top to bottom, left to right. Because the symbols were inscribed with sharp instruments, the lines were originally angular; and in many ways, Li Si's achievements were made obsolete by the appearance of brush and ink (seeChinese calligraphy). The ink-wet brush creates a line quite different from a sharp stylus. It affords variation in thickness and curve of line. Calligraphy retained the block form of Li Si and his eight strokes, but the writer was free to create characters that emphasized aesthetically pleasing balance and form. The way a character was written gave a message of style.
Calligraphy in the Chinese tradition was thus introduced to Japan about AD 600 Known as thekarayō(唐様) tradition, it has been practiced up to today, rejuvenated continuously through contact withChinese culture.[8]
The oldest existing calligraphic text in Japan is the inscription on the halo of theMedicine Buddha statue in theHōryū-ji Temple. ThisChinese text was written inShakyōtai (写経体) style, prominent in the ChineseSix Dynasties period.
TheHōryū-ji Temple also holds bibliographic notes on theLotus Sutra: theHokke Gisho (法華義疏) was written early in the 7th century and is considered the oldest Japanese text. It is written inCursive script and illustrates that calligraphy in theAsuka period was already refined to a high degree.
The oldest hand-copied sutra in Japan is theKongō Jōdaranikyō. Copied by the priest Hōrin in AD 686, the calligraphy style shows influences from the work ofOuyang Xun.
"Broken Stone in Uji Bridge" (宇治橋断碑,ujibashi danpi) (mid-7th century) andStone in Nasu County "Stone in Nasu County" (那須国造碑,nasu kokuzō hi) are also typical examples from this time. Both inscriptions were influenced by theNorthern Wei robust style.
In the 7th century, theTang dynasty established hegemony in China. Their second EmperorTaizong esteemedWang Xizhi's calligraphic texts and this popularity influenced Japanese calligraphers. All of the original texts written by Wang Xizhi have been lost, and copies such asGakki-ron(楽毅論) written by theEmpress Kōmyō are highly regarded as important sources for Wang Xizhi's style. However Wang's influence can barely be overstated, in particular for thewayō(和様) style unique to Japan: "Even today, there is something about Japanese calligraphy that retains the unchanged flavour ofWang Xizhi's style".[9]
Emperor Kanmu moved thecapital fromHeijō-kyō inNara, first toNagaoka-kyō in 784, and then toHeian-kyō, Kyoto in 794. This marks the beginning of theHeian era, Japan's "golden age". Chinese influences in calligraphy were not changed in the early period. For example, under theEmperor Saga's reign, royalty, the aristocracy and even court ladies studied calligraphy by copyingChinese poetry texts in artistic style.
Wang Xizhi's influences remained dominant, which are shown in calligraphies written byKūkai orSaichō. Some other Chinese calligraphers, such asOuyang Xun andYan Zhenqing were also highly valued. Their most notable admirers wereEmperor Saga andTachibana no Hayanari respectively.
At the same time, a style of calligraphy unique to Japan emerged. Writing had been popularized, and thekana syllabary was devised to deal with elements of pronunciation that could not be written with the borrowed Chinese characters. Japanese calligraphers still fitted the basic characters, calledkanji(漢字), into the squares laid out centuries before. A fragment,Kara-ai no hana no utagire (韓藍花歌切, AD 749) is considered the first text to show a style unique to Japanese calligraphy; it shows aTanka(短歌) poem usingMan'yōgana, thus deviated from contemporary Chinese calligraphy.Ono no Michikaze (AD 894–966), one of the so-calledsanseki(三跡, "Three Brush Traces"), along withFujiwara no Sukemasa andFujiwara no Yukinari, is considered the founder of the authentically Japanesewayō(和様) style, orwayō-shodō(和様書道). This development resonated with the court:Kūkai said toEmperor Saga, "China is a large country and Japan is relatively small, so I suggest writing in a different way." The "Cry for noble Saichō" (哭最澄上人,koku Saichō shounin), a poem written byEmperor Saga on the occasion ofSaichō's death, was one of the examples of such a transformation.Ono no Michikaze served as an archetype for theShōren-in school, which later became theOie style of calligraphy. TheOie style was later used for official documents in theEdo period and was the prevailing style taught in theterakoya(寺子屋) schools of that time.
The ascension ofMinamoto no Yoritomo to the title ofshōgun, following theHōgen andHeiji rebellions, and the victory of theMinamoto clan over theTaira, marked the beginning of theKamakura period (AD 1185–1333), but not quite yet to a return to peace and tranquility. The era is sometimes called "the age of the warriors" and a broad transition from court influences to a leading role of the military establishment pervaded the culture. It is also, however, a time when exchanges with China of theSong dynasty continued andBuddhism greatly flourished. Zen monks such as Shunjo studied in China and the copybooks that he brought with him are considered highly influential for thekarayō(唐様) tradition of the time, expressing a clearkaisho style.[10] But this was not the only example, indeed a succession of Chinese monks were naturalized at that time, encouraged by regentHōjō Tokiyori. Rankei Doryū founded theKenchō-ji temple inKamakura and many of his works have been preserved. However, with the rise of theRinzai school ofZen Buddhism a less technical style appeared, representative of Zen attitudes and exemplified in the works ofMusō Soseki who wrote in a refined sosho style, or Shūhō Myōcho (1282–1337; better known as Daito Kokushi), the founder ofDaitoku-ji inKyoto, who had not traveled to China to study. In terms ofwayō(和様) style, the works ofFujiwara no Shunzei andFujiwara no Teika are considered outstanding examples of the lateHeian and earlyKamakura.[11]
Political and military unrest continued throughout theMuromachi period (AD 1336–1537), characterized by tensions between imperial and civil authority and periods of outright civil war. However, asAshikaga Takauji had oustedEmperor Go-Daigo fromKyoto to establish his ownbakufu there, the intermingling of residual members of the imperial court, courtiers,daimyōs,samurai, andZen priests resulted in vibrant cultural impulses. The arts prospered, but are not considered as refined as that of earlier times. Of note is the role ofIkkyū Sōjun, a successor of Shūhō Myōcho atDaitoku-ji; Ikkyū was instrumental in elevating the appreciation of calligraphy to an integral part of thetea ceremony in the 15th century.[12]
Tokugawa Ieyasu centralized power in his shogunate between 1603 and 1615. This marked the beginning of theEdo period, which brought 250 years of relative stability to Japan, lasting until the second half of the 19th century. The period was marked by seclusion from overseas influences with theSakoku (鎖国, "locked country" or "chained country") policy. Calligraphic studies were essentially limited to the study ofkarayō(唐様) style works, viaMing-dynasty China. Indigenous developments were contributed byIngen and theŌbaku sect of Zen buddhism, and the Daishi school of calligraphy. The latter focused on the study of the"eight principles of the characteryong" (永字八法,eiji happō), which go back toWang Xizhi[citation needed], and the 72 types ofhissei ("brush energy") expounded byWang Xizhi's teacher, theLady Wei. The 1664 reprint of a copybook based on these principles in Kyoto contributed an important theoretical development.[13] Calligraphers such as Hosoi Kotaku, who authored the five-volumeKanga Hyakudan in 1735, further advanced thekarayō(唐様) style. Very characteristic for the early Edo period was an innovation byHon'ami Kōetsu (1558–1637) who had paper made to order and painted a backdrop of decorative patterns, butterflies or floral elements that his calligraphy established a poetic correspondence with. Together withKonoe Nobutada (1565–1614) andShōkadō Shōjō (1584–1639) – the threeKan'eiSanpitsu(寛永三筆) – he is considered one of the greatest calligraphers in thewayō(和様) style at the time, creating examples of "a uniquely Japanese calligraphy".[14]
Around 1736Yoshimune began relaxing Japan's isolation policy and Chinese cultural imports increased, in particular via the port ofNagasaki. Catalogues of imported copybooks testify to a broad appreciation of Chinese calligraphers among the Japanese literati who pursued thekarayō style: "traditionalists" studiedWang Xizhi andWen Zhengming, while "reformists" modeled their work on the sōsho style of calligraphers such asZhang Xu,Huaisu andMi Fu. In terms ofwayō,Konoe Iehiro contributed many fine kana works but generally speaking,wayō style was not as vigorously practised askarayō at that time.[15] Nevertheless, some examples have been preserved by scholars ofkokugaku (國學, National studies), or poets and painters such asKaga no Chiyo,Yosa Buson orSakai Hōitsu.
In contemporary Japan, shodo is a popular class for elementary school and junior high school students. Many parents believe that having their children focus and sit still while practicing calligraphy will be beneficial.[16] In high school, calligraphy is one of the choices among art subjects, along with music or painting. It is also a popular high school club activity, particularly with the advent ofperformance calligraphy.[17] Some universities, such asUniversity of Tsukuba,Tokyo Gakugei University andFukuoka University of Education, have special departments of calligraphic study that emphasize teacher-training programs in calligraphy.
Japanese calligraphy was influenced by, and influenced,Zen thought. For any particular piece of paper, the calligrapher has but one chance to create with the brush. The brush strokes cannot be corrected, and even a lack of confidence shows up in the work. The calligrapher must concentrate and be fluid in execution. The brush writes a statement about the calligrapher at a moment in time (seeHitsuzendō, the Zen way of the brush). Through Zen, Japanese calligraphy absorbed a distinctJapanese aesthetic often symbolised by theensō or circle of enlightenment.
Zen calligraphy is practiced byBuddhist monks and most[citation needed]shodō practitioners. To write Zen calligraphy with mastery, one must clear one's mind and let the letters flow out of themselves, not practice and make a tremendous effort. This state of mind was called themushin (無心,"no mind state") by the Japanese philosopherNishida Kitaro. It is based on the principles ofZen Buddhism, which stresses a connection to the spiritual rather than the physical.[18]
BeforeJapanese tea ceremonies (which are connected to Zen Buddhism), one is to look at a work ofshodō to clear one's mind. This is considered an essential step in the preparation for a tea ceremony.[18]
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