TheRosewood Massacre began when racial violence erupted inRosewood, Florida after a white woman accused a black man of assaulting her.[1] When it was discovered that a black convict, Jesse Hunter, had escaped from a prison work gang, a posse of at least 200 white men from the neighboring white town ofSumner invaded Rosewood and made a house-to-house search for anyone who might be harboring the fugitive. By January 4, houses in Rosewood were being set afire, and four black and two white men had died.[2]
Takeshi Hirayama, Japanese epidemiologist and cancer researcher who made the first study (in 1981) showing a link betweenpassive smoking ("second-hand smoke") and increased risk oflung cancer; inKyoto (d. 1995)
Aninterallied conference began in Paris (with the Prime Ministers of the UK, France and Italy) to address Germanwar reparations. The British government submitted a plan with easier payments for Germany in the early years to help avoid another default until the country got back on its feet.[12] The nations agreed to reduce Germany's reparations debt to 50 billion gold marks, equivalent to $12.5 billion U.S. dollars.[13]
Pierce Butler was sworn in as the newest Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court after having been confirmed on December 21 by the U.S. Senate.[15]
BKD, LLP, one of the largest accounting firms in the U.S., was founded by William Baird, Wade Kurtz and Claire Dobson with an initial investment of $1,700.[16]
At least 17 people were killed inthe collapse of a bridge over theCowlitz River in the U.S. state of Washington.[17] At least 20 vehicles and more than 100 pedestrians, most of them employees of mills inLongview were crossing the bridge to return to their homes on the other side of the river inKelso when two towers collapsed and a 300-foot long span fell into the river.[18]
The first radio network in the U.S. was created when the AT&T company used special telephone lines to broadcast programming simultaneously on New York City'sWEAF and Boston'sWNAC stations.[20]
The day after its Tuesday report of plans by the Prince of Wales to marry Princess Yolanda of Savoy, London'sDaily News published a new report that "The formal announcement of the engagement of the Prince of Wales to a young Scottish lady of noble birth will be made within the next two or three months," without directly identifying the woman but implying through other items in its report that the Prince's future fiancee would beElizabeth Bowes-Lyon.[21] Lady Bowes-Lyon had previously been proposed to by the brother of the Prince of Wales, the Duke of York.
The reparations conference in Paris broke up without success.[22]
Alois Rašín, the Finance Minister of Czechoslovakia, was shot and mortally wounded while walking out of his apartment in Prague and preparing to get into a car to travel to work. Struck in the back and in the side by gunshots fired by an anarchist, Josef Šoupal, Rašín would linger in pain for more than six weeks before dying on February 18.[23]
French airplanes were reported over unoccupied parts of Germany as rumors circulated that France was preparing to move troops into theRuhr region.[24]
Twelve people were killed and 40 injured inSofia, the capital ofBulgaria, after the explosion of a set of artillery shells left over from World War One and being handled by a local junk dealer. The dealer had purchased the shells from the Interallied Disarmament Commission, which decided to liquidate Bulgaria's stockpile of arms by selling the shells rather than disposing them.[25]
The government of the Soviet Union endorsed a campaign byKomsomol, the Young Communists League, against the celebration of the Christmas holiday, which had been celebrated by Russian Christians since the start of the 20th century onJanuary 7 (December 25 on theJulian calendar). Although theGregorian calendar, used in most of the rest of the world, had been adopted by the Communist government of Russia in 1918, the Russian Christmas remained in accordance with the traditional calendar. Newspapers ran satires and criticism and anti-religious demonstrations were held indoors on Saturday, pamphlets were distributed and parades were held on Sunday. The government had issued cautions to Komsomol chapters to avoid violence, and prohibited any demonstrations after nightfall.[26][27]
The U.S. Senate voted, 57 to 6, to recall the remaining American troops in Germany rather than to participate further in theoccupation of the Rhineland.[28][29] President Harding gave the order of withdrawal on January 10 for the 1,200 soldiers remaining.[30]
After an 8-month trial of 217 defendants atGorakhpur Sessions Court for the February 5, 1922, burning of a police station and the deaths of 22 policemen, verdicts were returned. While 47 people were acquitted of all charges, 170 others were found guilty of various crimes. Of the 170, 19 were ultimately sentenced to be hanged while 14 were sentenced to life imprisonment.[34]
The AlliedReparation Commission approved a resolution declaring Germany to be in willful default of her coal deliveries under the terms of theTreaty of Versailles.[35] The commissioners of France and Belgium voted to occupy Germany's industrialRuhr Area (located in what is now the German state ofNorth Rhine-Westphalia) to enforce Germany's reparation commitments, while the United Kingdom opposed the move.
The U.S. federal board for vocational education released its findings that 1.7 million boys and girls dropped out of school between fourth and eighth grade each year, usually drifting into low-paying jobs.[36]
Died:
Edith Thompson and Frederick Bywaters, convicted murderers who were hanged at 9:00 in the morning in different prisons for the October 9 murder of Edith's husband, Percy Thompson. Edith's hanging took place at theHolloway Prison while Frederick was dropped from the gallows atPentonville Prison half a mile away.[37]
Katherine Mansfield, 34, New Zealand-born short fiction writer, from pulmonary tuberculosis
At the Near East Conference inLausanne inSwitzerland, the representatives of the nations present voted to accept a proposal made by Turkey "to exchange the Greek population of Turkey against the Turkish population of Greece", a move that would forcibly resettle 600,000 Greeks in Turkey and 450,000 Turks in Greece. Exemptions were made for 200,000 Greeks in Constantinople (Istanbul) and 300,000 Turks in Western Thrace.[38]
Troops fromLithuania, "profiting by the international situation", invaded theMemel Territory, established as aLeague of Nations mandate between Lithuania and former German territory.[39] supporting an uprising by Lithuanian residents of the League territory, theKlaipėda Revolt.
Because of the discovery of oil reserves in theSultanate of Oman, at the time a British protectorate, SultanSaid bin Taimur was compelled to sign an agreement with Britain to provide for pre-approval by the British High Commissioner in India of any contracts between oil exploration companies and Oman for exploration and drilling rights to Oman's oil fields.[40]
TheUniversidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí (UASLP) was established as the first self-governing public university in Mexico, after the legislature of the State ofSan Luis Potosí authorized Governor Rafael Nieto to issue Decree 106.[41]
A buildup of French forces was reported aroundEssen.[42]
Born:Dick Johnson, Canadian-born American glider pilot and winner of 11 U.S. national championships; inMedicine Hat, Alberta. He would fly gliders until the day of his death, suffering a heart attack in midair and crashing on July 23, 2008, at the age of 85.[43]
French and Belgian troops began theoccupation of the Ruhr in response to Germany's default on its reparations payments. The first French Army troops crossed intoEssen at 4:45 in the morning and encountered no resistance from the local population.[44] By a vote of 478 to 86, theAssemblée nationale endorsed the actions of Prime Minister Prime MinisterRaymond Poincaré[45] Within days, the French forces had taken control of all major mining and industrial towns in the area around Essen, ranging fromWesel,Dorsten andHamm on theLippe to the cities that now compriseWuppertal on theWupper, as well as Essen,Dortmund andBochum.[46] By the end of the week, 100,000 French troops under the command of GeneralJean Degoutte were in place in the Ruhr area.[47]
Owners of the clothing manufacturers of the United States, in a meeting of the Associated Dress Industries of America, voted to jointly hire "a supreme arbiter of the industry with broad executive powers" comparable to the commissioner of baseball, and selected executive director David N. Mosessohn to be the czar of dressmaking, at the time one of the top five industries in the United States based on the output of one billion dollars a year in products.[48]
Adolf Hitler addressed several mass meetings inMunich. "Our protest against France must turn to a frantic determination to square matters with the scoundrels in our own country who are responsible for the whole misery", he stated. "We must not say down with France, but down with our own traitors and criminals."[49]
Born:Ernst Nolte, historian and philosopher, inWitten, Germany (d. 2016)
The British press heavily criticized the French for their actions in the Ruhr.The Outlook wrote thatRaymond Poincaré would be immortalized as "one of the most colossal of idiots, or alternatively the greatest of knaves", whileThe Spectator said that France was "going to commit the extremity of human folly."The Economist warned that France's actions might lead to another European war.[53]
A spokesperson for theWhite House said the administration would make no formal reply to the German government's protest against theoccupation of the Ruhr, explaining that the Americans had already done everything they could do unless they were looking for "more trouble" than they were prepared to undertake.[54]
Four passengers, two of them young children, were killed in the crash of anAeromarine West Indies Airways flight between Key West and Havana, when the Aeromarine 75 flying boat, dubbed the "Columbus", suffered engine trouble and ditched at sea in theFlorida Strait during a storm.[56] Waves as 20 feet (6.1 m) capsized the plane and filled the cabin, drowning the children and knocking their father and their governess overboard. The pilot, the co-pilot, and the other two passengers were able to stay afloat until their rescue by a passing ferry ship, theH.M. Flagler, and the airplane sank shortly afterward. The accident was the deadliest U.S. airliner crash of the year 1923.[57]
Days after she had been erroneously listed as the future fiancee of theEdward, Prince of Wales, Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon accepted the third proposal of marriage from the prince's brother,Prince Albert, Duke of York.[58] Lady Bowes-Lyon had declined proposals by Prince Albert in 1921 and 1922 because she did not wish to become subject to the narrow restrictions of members of royalty.[59]
Born:Harry Hon Hai Wong, Hong Kong food manufacturer and entrepreneur known as "The Noodle King" for perfecting the process of packaging "instant ramen" and promoting its worldwide distribution; inKulangsu,Fujian province (d. 2019)
Nestor Montoya, U.S. representative at large forNew Mexico and former speaker of the New Mexico House of Representatives, 61, died of a stroke at his home in Washington while preparing to go to work. Montoya, who had been sick at home for two days, was shaving when he suddenly collapsed.[60]
For the first time, wireless transmission of distinctive voices across the Atlantic Ocean was demonstrated, opening the potential of regular telephone service between the United States and the United Kingdom. "Scattering words and phrases have been wirelessly telephoned across the ocean before,"The New York Times noted the next day, "but thousands of words were shot over the distance of 3,400 miles last night and heard apparently with the distinctness of messages over a wire from Times Square to Herald Square."[61] The first phone call was made at 9:00 p.m. local time from New York (2:00 a.m. GMT) by H. B. Thayer, president of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T), which had developed the technology, whileGuglielmo Marconi and others listened at their receiving station at London inSouthgate. Because there was no comparable telephone transmitter in London or a receiver in New York[62] the acknowledgement of the messages was cabled from London, with the first reply received in New York 11 minutes later.
The Soviet Union made its first public statement about the Ruhr occupation, expressing "a voice of indignation and protest against the measures of the French government" and warning that "imperialistic France's attempt to go even beyond the shameful Versailles treaty" could lead to war.[64]
French troops fired on a crowd of German protesters inBochum, killing one of them and seriously wounding two others.[65] The French government warned that it would occupy more cities in the Ruhr if the Germans continued their refusal to cooperate with the operation of the coal mines in occupied regions.[66]
Lithuanian troops capturedMemel and forced the surrender of a League of Nations peacekeeping force that had been sent to stop the invasion.[67]
Rukmani Devi (stage name for Daisy Rasammah Daniels), singer and film actress known as "The Nightingale of Sri Lanka"; inNuwara Eliya, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) (d. in traffic accident, 1978)
TheKlaipėda Revolt came to a successful end for the Lithuanian rebels as the League signed a truce with Lithuania, providing for the transfer of the Memel territory for administration by the Republic of Lithuania, effective February 17.[70]
Born:
Anthony Hecht, American poet, in New York City (d. 2004)
The first practicalhelicopter, theCierva C.4autogyro, made its first successful flight. Invented by Spanish engineerJuan de la Cierva and piloted by Lieutenant Alejandro Gomez Spencer of the Spanish Flying Corps, the autogyro was documented to have flown, 600 feet at a steady altitude of 13 feet in a demonstration atGetafe Air Base[71] outsideMadrid.[72][73]
France's Rhineland High Commission issued an order authorizing the French Army troops in the Ruhr to seize customs receipts and collected taxes on mined coal, and to take over the forests in the occupied area in order to compensate for unpaid reparations. Germany's Reichsbank reacted by closing its branches in the occupied territory and moving the assets into the unoccupied area. The first direct action taken by the French was to seize seven barges and 120 coal trucks and their cargoes. French and Belgian authorities also issued a proclamation banning the singing of German patriotic songs (specifically "Deutschland Uber Alles" and "Die Wacht Am Rhein"), displaying "any kind of a flag, whether the national colors or otherwise", or "any kind of buttonhole insignia". Violations were punishable by a fine of 200,000 marks (about nine dollars or less at the time) or six months imprisonment.[74][75]
Fist fights broke out in France's Chamber of Deputies in "what is said to have been the wildest rioting in the history of the French Parliament", with about 50 of the more than 500 members brawling. The occasion was a debate over whether to suspend the parliamentary immunity of one of the deputies, French Communist Party leaderMarcel Cachin, in order to allow his arrest for treason. At the end of the session, the Deputies voted 371 to 143 to allow Cachin to be prosecuted.[76]
The German mark dropped to 23,800 against the U.S. dollar.[77] On January 1 it had been worth 9,000.[78]
Died:
Tennessee Claflin, 78, American suffragist and business executive who, with Victoria Woodhull, was the first woman to open a Wall Street brokerage firm
Wallace Reid, 31, American film actor, from complications of a morphine addiction "Wallace Reid Dies in Fight on Drugs— Motion-Picture Star Expires at Hollywood After Nervous Breakdown",The New York Times, January 19, 1923, p. 17
William C. Foster, 42, American cinematographer, from complications of syphilis
Kate Santley (stage name for Evangeline Gazina), 85, German-born British stage actress[79]
China's PresidentSun Yat-sen signed an agreement transferring his executive powers to a five-member military junta.
Germany ordered all government employees to refuse to obey the French occupational forces.[82]
German miners inBuer went on strike after French occupation forces arrested seven mine officials for failing to cooperate. All banking institutions inDüsseldorf closed, bringing commerce in the city to a halt[83][84]
French occupational authorities in the Ruhr arrested 21 German mine operators and officials as all banks inEssen voluntarily closed.[85]
Born:Slim Whitman (stage name for Ottis Dewey Whitman), American folk singer known for his use ofyodeling,falsetto vocals and guitar abilities; inTampa, Florida (d. 2013)
Ageneral strike of miners, railway, postal and telegraph workers, endorsed by the German government, was called in the Ruhr by the leaders of trade unions in resistance to the French and Belgian occupation.[86]
A royal decree in Italy allowed for the minting of new coins with theking's face on one side and thefasces on the other.[87]
At least 15 persons were killed in the sudden collapse of the seven-story Mosse Haus building inBerlin, headquarters of theRudolph Mosse publishing company, printer of theBerliner Tageblatt daily newspaper. The structure had been weakened from damage in theSpartacist uprising of 1919 and the subsequent addition of three more floors. The roof, overloaded during additional construction, collapsed onto the top floor, which then fell from the impact and caused the successive collapse of the floors beneath, all within a space of 30 seconds.[94]
The French imposed a total of 207,000francs worth of fines (equivalent at the time to $13,800) on Ruhr industrialists for failing to deliver reparations of coal. Rioting broke out inMainz when the verdict was announced and a call for ageneral strike was renewed. 35,000 railway workers began striking at 8:00 p.m.[95]
Born:Hansa Wadkar (stage name for Ratan Bhalachander Salgaokar), Indian film actress; inBombay (now Mumbai (d. 1971)
The Japanese weekly pictorial news magazineAsahigraph began publication,[97] and would continue until October 13, 2000.
The last U.S. Army occupation troops in Europe departed, as the U.S. Navy transport shipSt. Mihiel left from theBelgian port ofAntwerp with a simple farewell ceremony.[98]
French troops battled angry mobs in several cities in the Ruhr as the region's entire railway system was paralysed on the first full day of the strike.[99]
An explosion and fire on the oil tankerSan Leandro, owned by the El Águila, theMexican Eagle Petroleum Company caused the loss of 10 of the 46 crew, and serious injuries to 19 others, after an accident on thePánuco River atTampico.[100]
GeneralJean Degoutte issued a proclamation warning Germans against causing any further trouble or else the French troops would fire without warning.[102]
After payment of a ransom of four million pesetas by the Spanish government, theRepublic of the Rif, an unrecognized nation of theRifian Berbers in Spanish Morocco and led byAbd el-Krim, released the surviving 326 prisoners of war who had been taken captive after the Spanish surrender at theBattle of Annual on July 22, 1921. During the 18 months of captivity, 261 of the original 587 prisoners of war had died.[105]
French soldiers inDuisburg andRatingen were shot at by snipers while the railway strike expanded toKoblenz.[106]
Argentine Army Colonel Héctor Benigno Varela, who had carried out the massacre of 1,500 peasants who had participated in thePatagonia Rebelde uprising between 1920 and 1922, was assassinated by German-born anarchistKurt Gustav Wilckens.
Died:Sherman E. Burroughs, 52, U.S. Representative for New Hampshire since 1917, died suddenly at his home from influenza, referred to at the time as "the grippe" or "the grip".[107]
A group of 100,000 French-speaking Belgians protested against the use of theFlemish language atGhent University. The demonstration inBrussels, with crowds chanting "Gand est français!" ("Ghent is French!"), came in the wake of a bill passed by the Chamber of Deputies and sent to the Senate, requiring classes to be taught in Flemish and abolishing the traditional teaching of classes inFrench.[108]
Dr.Robert W. Rand, American neurosurgeon and inventor known for his application of the surgical microscope into neurosurgical procedures; inLos Angeles (d. 2013)
Cosma Spessotto, Italian-born Salvadoran priest beatified by the Roman Catholic Church; inMansuè (assassinated 1980)
Edward Terry Sanford was confirmed as Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court by a voice vote in the U.S. Senate, and would take his seat on the court on February 19.
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the Speaker of the Turkish Grand National Assembly marriedLatife Uşaki.[109] During her brief time as the wife of Turkey's leader, she would take an active role in the emancipation of women in the Islamic republic.
TheColorado Rangers who had patrolled the U.S. state ofColorado since 1861, were ordered to be disbanded, with effect from February 1, by executive order of GovernorWilliam E. Sweet in order to thwart prohibition enforcement as well as reduce law enforcement capacity in labor disputes that were common in mines.[110]
Born:
Paddy Chayefsky (Sidney Aaron Chayefsky), American playwright, screenwriter and novelist, winner of three Academy Awards for best screenplay (forMarty (1955),The Hospital (1971) andNetwork (1976); inthe Bronx,New York (d. 1981)
Living in exile in the Netherlands, the former heir to the throne of Germany,Wilhelm of Hohenzollern, drove from his home inDoorn to the town ofNijmegen, near German border.[112] Staying on the Dutch side, Prince Wilhelm then drove along the frontier through villages on the road toRoermond, stopping to talk to monarchist Germans and admirers to discuss his possible return to become Kaiser Wilhelm III. After spending the night at theHillenraad Castle as the guest of Count Herman Jozef Wolff-Metternich, before he "probably decided that the time was not yet ripe" to return to Germany, and drove back to Doorn the next day.[113]
The value of the German papiermark fell to less than 1/40,000th of a U.S. dollar for the first time on currency exchanges, making the currency worth only one 10,000th of its pre-World War One value of 25 American cents.[114]
Italy's Benito Mussolini receiving the Fascist Salute
Italy's Ministry of Public Instruction issued a new regulation requiring public school students to honor theItalian flag with the "Fascist salute", a gesture of extending the right arm toward the flag, palm down and fingers together, and said to be derived from the traditional salute given in the Roman Empire.[116] The salute would later be adopted in Germany by the Nazi Party.
A mine explosion and toxic gas killed 145 coal miners at the German-owned Heinitz Coal Company operating in Rozbark, nearBytom.[117]
Germany and Soviet Russia ratified theTreaty of Rapallo, soon to be extended to the other member republics of the Soviet Union. The two nations renounced territorial and financial claims against each other. The Communist government of Russia had negotiated a separate peace treaty with Germany to formally end World War One.
Eligiusz Niewiadomski, 53, Polish painter was executed by firing squad after being convicted for the December 16 assassination of Polish PresidentGabriel Narutowicz.
^Kohn, George C. (2000).The New Encyclopedia of American Scandal. New York: Facts on File. p. 340.ISBN978-1-4381-3022-4.
^"Kill Six in Florida; Burn Negro Houses",The New York Times, January 6, 1923, p. 1
^abRussell Haywood,Railways, Urban Development and Town Planning in Britain: 1948–2008 (Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2012) p.23, p.59
^Robert Bluffield,Over Empires and Oceans: Pioneers, Aviators and Adventurers - Forging the International Air Routes 1918-1939 (Tattered Flag Press, 2014) p.115
^"Air France, Foreign Air Carrier Permits" inEconomic Decisions of the Civil Aeronautics Board (Civil Aeronautics Board, 1947 p.3)
^"Penn State Eleven Defeated on Coast— Loses to Southern California by 14 to 3 Before Crowd of 53,000 at Pasadena",The New York Times, January 2, 1923, p. 10
^"Florida Football Eleven Crushes Cuban Rivals, 80-0",The New York Times, January 2, 1923, p. 10
^"Willie Keeler Dies of Heart Disease", January 2, 1923, p. 10
^Steele, John (January 3, 1923). "British Offer to Cut Debts to Help Germany".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 2.
^"Allies Agree on Cut in Reparations to $12,500,000,000; Clash on Details; Plane for Allied Debt Payment Also",The New York Times, January 3, 1923, p. 1
^Peter C. Engelman,History of the Birth Control Movement in America (ABC-CLIO, 2011) p. 138
^"Butler Takes Seat on Supreme Bench",The New York Times, January 3, 1923, p. 12
^"Eighteen Missing in Crash of Bridge— People Watchin a Jam Are Hurled Into the Cowlitz River at Kelso, Wash.",The New York Times, January 4, 1923, p. 2
^Steele, John (January 4, 1923). "Wales Prince Balks at Royal Match Making".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 17.
^"Prince of Wales to Wed Daughter of a Scotch Earl— Facts Given to Show She Is Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, Lord Strathmore's Daughter",The New York Times, January 5, 1923, p. 1
^Wales, Henry (January 5, 1923). "Frances Moves for Invasion".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Ferdinand Peroutka,Budování státu (Lidové noviny, 1991)
^Wales, Henry (January 6, 1923). "French Planes Scout Ruhr".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"12 Dead, 40 Hurt; Many Lost After Sofia Shell Explosion",The New York Times, January 6, 1923, p. 1
^"Moscow Reds Start Anti-Religious Drive On the Eve of the Russian Christmas",The New York Times, January 8, 1923, p. 1
^"Godless Christmas Staged in Moscow; Group of Faithful Court Martyrdom as Pageant of Blasphemy Passes",The New York Times, January 9, 1923, p.3
^Henning, Arthur Sears (January 7, 1923). "Senate Votes 57-6 to Bring Soldiers Home".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"Doughboys on Rhine in Sorrow at Order; Beer and Rhine Wine Flow as Plans Go Forward for an Early Departure",The New York Times, January 11, 1923, p. 1
^"Last Negro Homes Razed in Rosewood— Florida Mob Deliberately Fires One House After Another in Block Section— Authorities Now Believe Race Riots Which Caused Seven Deaths Have Come to an End",The New York Times, January 8, 1923, p. 4
^Niemi, Robert James (2013).Inspired by True Events: An Illustrated Guide to More Than 500 History-Based Films, Second Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 459.ISBN978-1-61069-198-7.
^Henning, Arthur Sears (January 9, 1923). "We'll Pay All, But Ask for Fair Terms: Britain".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"Legal Murder in India", by M. N. Roy,International Press Correspondence (January 24, 1923), reprinted inDocuments of the History of the Communist Party of India: Volume 2, 1923–1925 (People's Publishing House, 1974) pp. 62–64
^"French Army Ready at Gates of Essen As Germany Is Declared in Default",The New York Times, January 10, 1923, p.1
^Evans, Arthur (January 10, 1923). "1,700,000 Quit Grade Schools Yearly, U.S. Says".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 12.
^"Lift Mrs. Thompson to Scaffold to Die; Warders Carry Her in Semi-Conscious Condition to Expiate the Murder of Husband— Bywaters Is Also Hanged",The New York Times, January 10, 1923, p.5
^"Million Must Quit Homes in Near East, Lausanne Decrees",The New York Times, January 11, 1923, p.1
^"Threat to Seize Memel— Lithuanians Move on Zone Internationalized by Treaty",The New York Times, January 11, 1923, p.2
^Clayton, John (January 10, 1923). "Cavalry Marches on Essen".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"Richard H. "Dick" Johnson: Glider pilot soared for nearly 70 years",Dallas Morning News, July 28, 2008
^"French Enter Essen Unresisted at 4:45 A. M.; Advance Guard in Essen; Main Force of Invaders Moves from Dusseldorf by Noon",The New York Times, January 11, 1923, p.1
^"Essen Is Silent and Sullen as French March In; Deputies Uphold Poincare in Riotous Session", by Edwin L. James,The New York Times, January 12, 1923, p. 1
^"Ruhr Towns Now Held by the French",The New York Times, January 13, 1923, p. 2
^"100,000 Troops Complete French Invasion Plan; More Coal and Coke Are Seized on German Cars",The New York Times, January 18, 1923, p. 1
^"Dressmakers Name Dictator Like Hays",The New York Times, January 12, 1923, p. 1
^Rue, Larry (January 13, 1923). "Russia Urged Not to Attack her Neighbors".Chicago Daily Tribune. pp. 1–2.
^"George J. Hamlin, Tenor, Dies at 53",The New York Times, January 12, 1923, p. 15
^"W.H. Moore, Lawyer and Horseman, Dies— With Brother, Aided in Organizing Diamond Match Company and American Tin Plate Company",The New York Times, January 12, 1923, p. 1
^Williams, George L. (1994).Fascist Thought and Totalitarianism in Italy's Secondary Schools: Theory and Practice, 1922–1943. New York: P. Lang. p. 10.ISBN0-8204-2264-9.
^"British Press Fears Vast War in French Grab".Chicago Daily Tribune. January 13, 1923. p. 1.
^"U.S. Won't Reply to Ruhr protest Sent by Berlin".Chicago Daily Tribune. January 13, 1923. p. 2.
^Rue, Larry (January 14, 1923). "Germans Vote to Back "Moral War" on French".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 2.
^"Four Die in the Sea as Crippled Plane Hits Waves off Cuba",The New York Times, January 14, 1923, p. 1
^Elizabeth Longford,The Queen Mother, (Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1981) p. 23
^John Ezard, "A life of legend, duty and devotion", The Guardian, April 1, 2002, p. 18
^"Montoya Dies Suddenly in Washington; Congressman Stricken While Shaving at His Home and End Follows Quickly",Santa Fe New Mexican, January 13, 1923, p. 1
^"New York Talks to England by Phone; Heard by Marconi— Inventions Make Clear Transmission of Extended Messages Possible for the First Time",The New York Times, January 15, 1923, p. 1
^"England to Phone to America Next— Radio Sending Apparatus to Be Set Up There Within a Few Weeks; First Test Was One-Way Talk From Here— Importance of Vacuum Tube",The New York Times, January 16, 1923, p. 1
^Erik Ching,Authoritarian El Salvador: Politics and the Origins of the Military Regimes, 1880-1940 (University of Notre Dame Press, 2014)
^"French Take More Towns, Fire on Mob at Bochum",The New York Times, January 16, 1923, p. 1
^Rue, Larry (January 16, 1923). "Germans Shot in Ruhr Riot".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"Memel Taken From French Guard by Lithuanians",The New York Times, January 16, 1923, p. 1
^"King's Second Son Engaged to Marry Lady E. Bowes-Lyon",The New York Times, January 16, 1923, p. 1
^"Sinclair Tells of Teapot Dome Oil Land Lease".Chicago Daily Tribune. January 17, 1923. p. 24.
^"Truce at Memel; Allies Send Ships",The New York Times, January 17, 1923, p. 2
^"Chronology of Rotary Wing Flight", inRotary Wing Aircraft Handbooks and History: The rotary wing industry, by Eugene K. Liberatore (U.S. Department of Commerce, 1954) p. 4
^Charnov, Bruce H."History of Gyroplanes".General Aeronautics Corporation. RetrievedJanuary 28, 2015.
^Williams, Paul (January 19, 1923). "Bavarians to Resist French, Says Leader".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^"French Begin Seizing Rhine Barfges; To Take Over Customs and Coal Taxes— People Forbidden to Sing Patriotic Songs or Display Flags or Buttonhole Insignia",The New York Times, January 19, 1923, p. 1
^"Fifty French Deputies Fight in the Chamber; Decision to Prosecute Red Starts Uproar",The New York Times, January 19, 1923, p. 1
^"No Bottom to Pit for German Marks, it Seems".Chicago Daily Tribune. January 19, 1923. p. 1.
^Calhoun, Joseph Y. (September 23, 2012)."The Joyless Street".Alhambra Investment Partners. RetrievedJanuary 28, 2015.
^"Kate Santley Dies; Once Famous Actress",The New York Times, January 19, 1923, p. 17
^"Two Danes Discover New Element, Hafnium— Detect It by Means of Spectrum Analysis of Ore Containing Zirconium",The New York Times, January 20, 1923, p. 4
^Rue, Larry (January 20, 1923). "Germany Tells 200,000 to Obey No French Order".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 2.
^Williams, Paul (January 20, 1923). "French Fire on Ruhr Miners".Chicago Daily Tribune. pp. 1–2.
^"French Arrest Seven Ruhr Operators; Miners Resent Action, Threaten Strike; Bank Seizure Starts a Money Panic",The New York Times, January 20, 1923, p. 1
^Fendrick, Raymond (January 22, 1923). "Strike in Ruhr; Defy French".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Falasca-Zamponi, Simonetta (1997).Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. 96.ISBN978-0-520-92615-8.
^Wales, Henry (January 23, 1923). "Reports Only 10,000 Out".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Neibaur, James L.; Niemi, Terri (2013).Buster Keaton's Silent Shorts, 1920–1923. Plymouth: Scarecrow Press. p. 209.ISBN978-0-8108-8740-4.
^Cornyn, J.H. (February 2, 1923). "Troops Kill 14; Wound 50 in Street Fight".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Fendrick, Raymond (January 24, 1923). "France Will Cut Off Ruhr from Germany".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Clayton, John (January 25, 1923). "No Cheers, Many Tears as Yanks Quit the Rhine".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 2.
^"Americans Lower Flag on the Rhine and Quit Germany",The New York Times, January 25, 1923, p. 1
^"Fifteen Killed in Berlin Tageblatt Offices As Seventh Floor Crashes to Basement",The New York Times, January 25, 1923, p. 1
^Fendrick, Raymond (January 25, 1923). "Ruhr Swept by Big Strike".Chicago Daily Tribune. pp. 1–2.
^"Sherman Burroughs Dead; New Hampshire Congressman's End Sudden After an Attack of Grip",The New York Times, January 28, 1923, p. 3
^"Brussels Protests on Language Issue— 100,000 People Demonstrate Against Compulsory Flemish in Ghent University; Question Dividing Nation",The New York Times, January 30, 1923, p. 5
^"1923".Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism. RetrievedJanuary 28, 2015.
^"Governor Sweet Orders Colorado Rangers Disbanded", AP report inSanta Fe New Mexican, January 29, 1923, p.1
^"Ex-Crown Prince Makes Trip To German Border From Doorn",The New York Times, February 3, 1923, p. 1
^"Crown Prince Did Start for Germany, Stopped at Line; Found Monarchists Ready for an Uprising, but Decided Time Was Not Ripe— Exile Studied the Country on a Trip of 100 Kilometers on the Dutch Side",The New York Times, February 11, 1923, p. 1
^"Marks Now 10,000 to One of Pre-War; Offers in Berlin Up to 50,000 a Dollar",The New York Times, January 31, 1923, p. 2
^Williams, Paul (January 31, 1923). "French Army to Take More Ruhr Cities".Chicago Daily Tribune. p. 1.
^Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: the aesthetics of power in Mussolini's Italy (University of California Press, 2000), p. 110
^"150 Dead in Polish Mine; Fifty Other Workers Are Still Unaccounted For at Beuthen]],The New York Times, February 2, 1923, p. 1
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