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InHinduism,Itihasa-Purana, also calledthe fifth Veda,[1][2][3] refers to the traditional accounts ofcosmogeny,myths,royal genealogies of thelunar dynasty andsolar dynasty, andlegendary past events,[web 1] as narrated in theItihasa (Mahabharata and theRamayana)[1] and thePuranas.[1] They are highly influential in Indian culture, and many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the Itihasa.[4] TheEpic-Puranic chronology derived from theItihasa-Puranais an influential frame of reference in traditional Indian thought.
Itihāsa,इतिहास, derived from the phraseiti ha āsaइति ह आस, which means "so indeed it was".
Puranas,/pʊˈrɑːnə/;Sanskrit:पुराण,purāṇa literally means "ancient, old."[web 2][3]
Itihasa refers to theSanskrit Epics of theMahabharata and theRamayana.[1] The Puranas are a vast genre of Hindu literature about a wide range of topics, particularly aboutcosmogony, myths, legends and purported history.[5] Together they are also called the fifth Veda,[1][2][3] "the Holy Book of the masses who were not entitled to study the four Vedas."[1]
The tradition of Itihāsa is generally understood to be developed by the bardic tradition ofSūtas andCāraṇas whose duties consisted of composing royaleulogies.[6]
In the mythical narratives of theItihasa-Purana there is no clear distinction between mythology, hagiography and historiography.[2] The Indian tradition regards theItihasa-Purana as authoritative historical writings, documenting past events[1] and prescribingdharma, the right way tho live.[7] The Itihasa-Purana forms the basis for theEpic-Puranic chronology, the traditional timeline of legendary history. The Mahabharata includes the story of theKurukshetra War and preserves the traditions of theLunar dynasty in the form of embedded tales. The Ramayana contains the story ofRama and is incidentally related to the legends of theSolar dynasty. The Puranas provide the idea ofyugas and theDashavatara, the ten incarnations of Vishnu in the four respective yugas.
According to theHindu texts, time is cyclic. The history of mankind is divided into four ages—Satya Yuga,Treta Yuga,Dvapara Yuga andKali Yuga—collectively forming oneMaha Yuga. Seventy-one Maha Yugas form aManvantara ("age ofManu"), a period of time over which a "Manu" presides. For the duration of his period, each Manu is the archetypal first man, the progenitor of humanity, and also the first king and lawgiver. Along with a Manu, every Manvantara also has its own set ofIndra,gods and theseven sages. Fourteen Manus reign inKalpa, (a single day in the life of)Brahma), an equivalent of 1,000 Maha Yugas, at the end of which, the creation is destroyed and is followed by aPralaya (dissolution) of equal length. The creation starts again, in the next Kalpa in an endless cycle of creations and dissolutions.
TheDashavatara refers to the ten primary (i.e. full or complete) incarnations (avatars) ofVishnu, theHindu god ofpreservation which hasRigvedic origins. Vishnu is said to descend in the form of an avatar to restore cosmic order. The wordDashavatara derives fromdaśa, meaning "ten", and avatar (avatāra), roughly equivalent to "incarnation".
Various versions of the list of Vishnu's avatars exist, varying per region and tradition.[8][9][10][11] Some lists mention Krishna as the eighth avatar and the Buddha as the ninth avatar,[8] while others – such as theYatindramatadipika, a 17th-century summary ofSrivaisnava doctrine[10] – give Balarama as the eighth avatar and Krishna as the ninth.[10] The latter version is followed by some Vaishnavas who do not accept the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu.[12] Though no list can be uncontroversially presented as standard, the "most accepted list found in Puranas and other texts is [...] Krishna, Buddha."[13][14][15][16][17][note 1]
The following table summarises the position of avatars within the Dashavatara in many but not all traditions:[9][10][11][18]
| Position | Krishna, Buddha (common list) [9][note 1][note 2] | Balarama, Krishna (Vaishnavites) [9][10][note 3] | Balarama, Buddha [19][note 4][note 5] | Krishna, Vithoba [18][note 6] | Balarama, Jagannatha [20][note 7] | Yuga[9] |
| 1 | Matsya[9][10](fish; savesManu Vaivasvata) | Satya Yuga[9] | ||||
| 2 | Kurma[9][10](turtle, tortoise) | |||||
| 3 | Varaha[9][10](boar, wild swine) | |||||
| 4 | Narasimha[9][10](man-lion) | |||||
| 5 | Vamana[9][10](dwarf-god) | Treta Yuga[9] | ||||
| 6 | Parashurama[9][10](Brahman warrior) | |||||
| 7 | Rama[9][10][note 8] | |||||
| 8 | Krishna[9][note 4] | Balarama[9][11][10] | Balarama[19][note 4] | Krishna[18] | Balarama[20][11] | Dvapara Yuga,[9] Kali Yuga in case of Buddha[9] |
| 9 | Buddha[9][note 1] | Krishna[9][11][10] | Buddha[19][note 1] | Vithoba[18] | Jagannatha[20][11] | |
| 10 | Kalki[9][10](prophesied 10th avatar who ends the Kali Yuga) | Kali Yuga | ||||
TheSolar Dynasty andLunar dynasty were two legendary principal dynasties of theKshatriyasvarna, or warrior–ruler class mentioned in the ancient Indian texts. They trace their origin toVaivasvata Manu, who presides over the present, seventh manvatara.
According toHarivamsa,Ikshvaku was the son of Vaivasvata Manu, and the primogenitor of the Suryavamsha, or theSolar Dynasty, and was granted the kingdom of Aryavarta by his fatherVaivasvata Manu. Vaivasvata Manu settled down in theAryavarta region after he survived theGreat Flood that ended the sixth mamanvatara.A. K. Mozumdar states that Manu is the one who built a city on theSarayu (the river that his mother Sanjana was the goddess of) and called itAyodhya, meaning the 'invincible city'. This city served as the capital of many kings from the solar dynasty and is also believed to be the birthplace ofRama.[23]
TheLunar dynasty (IAST:Candravaṃśa) is said to be descended from moon-related deities (Soma orChandra).[24] According to theShatapatha Brahmana,Pururavas was the son ofBudha (himself often described as the son of Soma) and the gender-switching deityIla (born as the daughter ofManu).[25] Pururavas's great-grandson wasYayati, who had five sons namedYadu,Turvasu,Druhyu,Anu, andPuru. These seem to be the names of five Vedic tribes as described in theVedas.[26]
Many classical Indian poets derive the plots of their poetry and drama from the Itihasa.[4] The rules of classical Indian poetics prescribe that the themes of themahakavyas[27][28] (ornate epics) andnatakas[29] (drama) should primarily be selected from theitihasa. In accordance, great mahakavyas such asKalidasa’sRaghuvamsa,Kumaradasa’sJanaki-harana, Bhatti'sRavanavadha (orBhattikavya) have drawn their themes from theRamayana, andBharavi’sKiratarjuniya,Magha’sSisupalavadha and Sriharsa'sNaisadhiyacarita from theMahabharata.
The belief that South Asian society lacked historical consciousness until colonial times persists, as colonial writers like Robert Orme and James Mill argued that rational, factual history emerged in India only with British rule. They claimed pre-colonial Indian history, seen as mythic, did not meet modern standards because it was too formulaic and lacked historical context. But this notion has also been challenged.[30] Kumkum Chatterjee, focused on a vernacular tradition of Itihasa/Purana in early modern Bengal, argued that these narratives are based on historical experiences derived from Mughal rule in Bengal and much of India during the 17th and 18th centuries.[31] Puranas have evolved over time, constantly updated to reflect changing social conditions. They traditionally cover creation myths, cosmic cycles, genealogies, divine exploits, and royal histories, but they also include additional content like sectarian deities and social norms.[32]
