TheIsraeli cabinet ratified the name "Israel Defense Forces" (Hebrew:צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל),Tzva HaHagana LeYisra'el, literally "the army for the defence of Israel," on 26 May 1948. The other main contender wasTzva Yisra'el (Hebrew:צְבָא יִשְׂרָאֵל). The name was chosen because it conveyed the idea that the army's role was defence and incorporated the nameHaganah, the pre-state defensive organization upon which the new army was based.[9] Among the primary opponents of the name were MinisterHaim-Moshe Shapira and theHatzohar party, both in favor ofTzva Yisra'el.[9]
The IDF traces its roots to Jewish paramilitary organizations in theNew Yishuv, starting with theSecond Aliyah (1904 to 1914).[10] There had been several such organizations, or in part even older date, such as the "Mahane Yehuda" mounted guards company founded by Michael Halperin in 1891[11] (seeNess Ziona),HaMagen (1915–17),[12] HaNoter[12] (1912–13; seeZionism: Pre-state self-defense), and the much more consequential (but falsely-claimed "first" such organization),Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907. Bar-Giora was transformed intoHashomer in April 1909, which operated until theBritish Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with a narrow scope and was mainly created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. TheZion Mule Corps and theJewish Legion, both part of theBritish Army ofWorld War I, further bolstered the Yishuv with military experience and manpower, forming the basis for later paramilitary forces.[13]
After the1920 Palestine riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuv leadership realized the need for a nationwide underground defence organization, and theHaganah was founded in June 1920.[13] The Haganah became a full-scale defence force after the1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure, consisting of three main units—theField Corps,Guard Corps, and thePalmach. During World War II, the Yishuv participated in the British war effort, culminating in the formation of theJewish Brigade. These would eventually form the backbone of the Israel Defense Forces, and provide it with its initial manpower and doctrine.
Following Israel'sDeclaration of Independence, Prime Minister and Defense MinisterDavid Ben-Gurion issued an order for the formation of the Israel Defense Forces on 26 May 1948. Although Ben-Gurion had no legal authority to issue such an order, the order was made legal bythe cabinet on 31 May. The same order called for the disbandment of all other Jewish armed forces.[14] The two other Jewish underground organizations,Irgun andLehi, agreed to join the IDF if they would be able to form independent units and agreed not to make independent arms purchases. This was the background for theAltalena Affair, a confrontation surrounding weapons purchased by the Irgun resulting in a standoff between Irgun members and the newly created IDF. The affair came to an end whenAltalena, the ship carrying the arms, was shelled by the IDF. Following the affair, all independent Irgun and Lehi units were either disbanded or merged into the IDF. The Palmach, a leading component of the Haganah, also joined the IDFwith provisions, and Ben Gurion responded by disbanding its staff in 1949, after which many senior Palmach officers retired, notably its first commander,Yitzhak Sadeh.
The surprise of the Yom Kippur War and its aftermath completely changed the IDF's procedures and approach to warfare. Organizational changes were made and more time was dedicated to training forconventional warfare. However, in the following years the army's role slowly shifted again to low-intensity conflict,urban warfare andcounter-terrorism. An example of the latter was the successful 1976Operation Entebbe commando raid to free hijacked airline passengers being held captive inUganda. During this era, the IDF also mounted asuccessful bombing mission inIraq to destroy its nuclear reactor. It was involved in theLebanese Civil War, initiatingOperation Litani and later the1982 Lebanon War, where the IDF ousted Palestinian guerrilla organizations fromLebanon.
All branches of the IDF answer to a singleGeneral Staff. TheChief of the General Staff is the only serving officer having the rank ofLieutenant General (Rav Aluf). He reports directly to theDefense Minister and indirectly to thePrime Minister of Israel and the cabinet. Chiefs of Staff are formally appointed by the cabinet, based on the Defense Minister's recommendation, for three years. The government can vote to extend their service to four, and on rare occasions even five years. The current chief of staff isEyal Zamir.[25]
Structure
The IDF includes the following bodies. Those whose respective heads are members of theGeneral Staff are in bold:
The structure of the Israel Defense Forces (click to enlarge)
Israeli officers of the Paratrooper Battalion 890 in 1955 withMoshe Dayan (standing, third from the left).Ariel Sharon is standing, second from the left and commandoMeir Har Zion is standing furthest left. Note the wearing of four pocket tunics by paratroopers and khaki uniforms being worn as a sort of dress uniform.
Unlike most militaries, the IDF uses the same rank names in all corps, including the air force and navy.
From the formation of the IDF until the late 1980s,sergeant major was a particularly importantwarrant officer rank, in line with usage in other armies. In the 1980s and 1990s the proliferating ranks of sergeant major became devalued, and now all professionalnon-commissioned officer ranks are a variation on sergeant major (rav samal) except forrav nagad.
All translations here are the official translations of the IDF's website.[26]
Conscripts (Hogrim) (Conscript ranks may be gained purely on time served)
IDF uniform colorsIDF female Military Police wearing skirts with their white caps and beltsFemale IDF corporal with theSpike missile launcher, wearing the golden-olive Madei Alef uniform
The Israel Defense Forces has several types of uniforms:
Service dress (מדי אלףMadei Alef – Uniform "A") – the everyday uniform, worn by everybody.
Field dress (מדי בMadei Bet – Uniform "B") – worn into combat, training, work on base.
The first two resemble each other but the Madei Alef is made of higher quality materials in a golden olive while the madei bet is inolive drab.[28][29] The dress uniforms may also exhibit a surface shine[29][30]
Officers / Ceremonial dress (מדי שרדmadei srad) – worn by officers, or during special events/ceremonies.
Dress uniform andmess dress – worn only abroad. Several dress uniforms are depending on the season and the branch.
The service uniform for all ground forces personnel isolive green; navy and air force uniforms arebeige/tan (also once worn by the ground forces). The uniforms consist of a two-pocket shirt,combat trousers,sweater, jacket or blouse, and shoes or boots. The navy also has an all-white dress uniform. The green fatigues are the same for winter and summer and heavy winter gear is issued as needed. Women's dress parallels the men's but may substitute a skirt for trousers and a blouse for a shirt.
Headgear included a service cap for dress and semi-dress and afield cap or"Kova raful" bush hat worn with fatigues. Many IDF personnel once wore thetembel as a field hat. IDF personnel generally wearberets instead of the service cap and there are many beret colours issued to IDF personnel.Paratroopers are issued a maroon beret,Golani brown,Givati purple,Nahal lime green,Kfir camouflage, Combat Engineers grey, navy blue for IDF Naval and dark grey for IDF Air Force personnel.
Some corps or units have small variations in their uniforms – for instance,military police wear a white belt andpolice hat, Naval personnel have dress whites for parades, paratroopers are issued a four pocket tunic (yarkit/yerkit) worn untucked with a pistol belt cinched tight around the waist over the shirt.[34] The IDF Air Corps has a dress uniform consisting of a pale blue shirt with dark blue trousers.
Most IDF soldiers are issued black leathercombat boots, certain units issuereddish-brown leather boots for historical reasons — the paratroopers,[34] combat medics, Nahal and Kfir Brigades, as well as someSpecial Forces units (Sayeret Matkal,Oketz,Duvdevan,Maglan, and the Counter-Terror School). Women were also formerly issuedsandals, but this practice has ceased.
IDF soldiers have three types of insignia (other than rank insignia) which identify their corps, specific unit, and position. A pin attached to the beret identifies a soldier's corps. Individual units are identified by a shoulder tag attached to the leftshoulder strap. The position/job of a soldier can then be identified by anaiguillette attached to the left shoulder strap and shirt pocket, and a pin indicating the soldier's work type.
Service
Military service routes
163rd IAF flight course graduates (2011)
The military service is held in three different tracks:
Regular service (שירות חובה): mandatory military service which is held according to the Israeli security service law.
Permanent service (שירות קבע): military service which is held as part of a contractual agreement between the IDF and the permanent position-holder.
Reserve service (שירות מילואים): a military service in which citizens are called for active duty of at most a month every year (in accordance with the Reserve Service Law), for training and ongoing military activities and especially to increase the military forces in case of a war.
Sometimes the IDF would also hold pre-military courses (קורס קדם צבאי or קד"צ) for soon-to-be regular service soldiers.
IAF flight academy graduates receive their ranks as air force officers.
Shoher (שוחר), a person enrolled in pre-military studies (high school, technical college up to engineering degree, some of the קד"ץ courses) – after completing the twelfth study year will do a two-month boot-camp and, if allowed, enter a program of education to qualify as apractical engineer, with at least two weeks of training following each study year. Successful candidates will continue for an engineeringbachelor degree.
Civilian working for the IDF (Hebrew:אזרח עובד צה"ל), a civilian working for the military.
IDF recruits trying on uniforms for the first timeIDFNahal Brigade soldiers on their regular service
National military service is mandatory for allIsraeli citizens over the age of 18, althoughArab (but notDruze) citizens are exempted if they so please, and other exceptions may be made on religious, physical or psychological grounds (seeProfile 21). TheTal law exempted ultra-Orthodox Jews from service. In June 2024,Israel's Supreme Court unanimously ruled that Haredi Jews were eligible for compulsory service, ending nearly eight decades of exemption.[35] The army began drafting Haredi men the following month.[36]
Until the draft of July 2015, men served three years in the IDF. Men drafted since July 2015 serve two years and eight months (32 months), with some roles requiring an additional four months of Permanent service. Women serve two years. The IDF women who volunteer for several combat positions often serve for three years, due to the longer period of training. Women in other positions, such as programmers, who also require lengthy training time, may also serve three years.
Some distinguished recruits are selected to be trained to eventually become members ofspecial forces units. Every brigade in the IDF has its special force branch.
Career soldiers are paid on averageNIS 23,000 a month. Conscripts are paid according to four tiers based on their positions. Frontline soldiers receive NIS 3,048 a month, other combat soldiers receive NIS 2,463, combat support soldiers receive NIS 1,793, and administrative soldiers receive NIS 1,235.[38][39]
Permanent service is designed for soldiers who choose to continue serving in the army after their regular service, for a short or long period, and in many cases making the military their career. Permanent service is based on a contractual agreement between the IDF and the permanent position holder.
After personnel complete their regular service, they are either granted permanent exemption from military service or assigned a position in the reserve forces. No distinction is made between the assignment of men and women to reserve service.
The IDF may call up reservists for:
reserve service of up to one month every three years, until the age of 40 (enlisted) or 45 (officers). Reservists may volunteer after this age, with the approval of the Manpower Directorate.
immediate active duty in wartime.
All Israelis who served in the IDF and are under the age of 40, unless otherwise exempt, are eligible for reserve duty. Only those who completed at least 20 days of reserve duty within the past three years are considered active reservists.[41]
Non-IDF service
Other than the civil, i.e. non-military "National Service" (Sherut Leumi), IDF conscripts may serve in bodies other than the IDF in several ways.
The combat option isIsrael Border Police (Magav – the exact translation from Hebrew means "border guard") service, part of theIsrael Police. Some soldiers complete their IDF combat training and later undergo additionalcounter terror and Border Police training. These are assigned to Border Police units. The Border Police units fight side by side with the regular IDF combat units though to a lower capacity. They are also responsible for security in heavy urban areas such asJerusalem and security and crime fighting in rural areas.
IDF Warrant Officers with the M16 andIWI X95; two common assault rifles of the IDF.
Israel is one of only a few nations that conscript women or deploy them in combat roles, although in practice, women can avoid conscription through a religious exemption and over a third of Israeli women do so.[42] As of 2010, 88% of all roles in the IDF are open to female candidates, and women could be found in 69% of all IDF positions.[43]
According to the IDF, 535 female Israeli soldiers were killed during service in the period 1962–2016,[44] and dozens before then. The IDF says that fewer than 4 percent of women are in combat positions. Rather, they are concentrated in "combat-support" positions which command a lower compensation and status than combat positions.[45]
Civilian pilot and aeronautical engineer Alice Miller successfully petitioned the High Court of Justice to take the Israeli Air Force pilot training exams, after being rejected on grounds of gender. Though presidentEzer Weizman, a former IAF commander, told Miller that she would be better off staying home and darning socks, the court eventually ruled in 1996 that the IAF could not exclude qualified women from pilot training. Even though Miller would not pass the exams, the ruling was a watershed, opening doors for women in new IDF roles. Female legislators took advantage of the momentum to draft a bill allowing women to volunteer for any position if they could qualify.[46]
In 2000, the Equality Amendment to the Military Service law stated that the right of women to serve in any role in the IDF is equal to the right of men.[47] Women have served in the military since before the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.[48] Women started to enter combat support and light combat roles in a few areas, including the Artillery Corps, infantry units and armoured divisions. A few platoons named Karakal were formed for men and women to serve together in light infantry. By 2000, Karakal became afull-fledged battalion, with a second mixed-gender battalion, Lions of the Jordan (אריות הירדן, Arayot Ha-Yarden) formed in 2015. Many women also joined theBorder Police.[46]
In June 2011, Maj. GeneralOrna Barbivai became the first female major general in the IDF, replacing the head of the directorate Maj. General Avi Zamir. Barbivai stated, "I am proud to be the first woman to become a major general and to be part of an organization in which equality is a central principle. Ninety percent of jobs in the IDF are open to women and I am sure that other women will continue to break down barriers."[49][50]
In 2013, the IDF announced they would, for the first time, allow a (MTF) transgender woman to serve in the army as a female soldier.[51]
Elana Sztokman notes it would be "difficult to claim that women are equals in the IDF". "And tellingly, there is only one female general in the entire IDF," she adds.[45] In 2012, religious soldiers claimed they were promised they would not have to listen to women sing or lecture, but IAF Chief Rabbi Moshe Raved resigned because male religious soldiers were being required to do so.[52] In January 2015, three women IDF singers performed in one of the IDF's units. The performance was first disrupted by fifteen religious soldiers, who left in protest and then the Master Sergeant forced the women to end the performance because it was disturbing the religious soldiers. An IDF spokesperson announced an investigation of the incident: "We are aware of the incident and already begun examining it. The exclusion of women is not consistent with the values of the IDF."[53]
Defense MinisterMoshe Ya'alon has also arranged for women to be excluded from recruitment centres catering to religious males.[54] As the IDF recruits more religious soldiers, the rights of male religious soldiers and women in the IDF come into conflict. Brig. Gen. Zeev Lehrer, who served on the chief of staff's panel of the integration of women, noted "There is a clear process of 'religionization' in the army, and the story of the women is a central piece of it. There are very strong pressures at work to halt the process of integrating women into the army, and they are coming from the direction of religion."[55]
Sex segregation is allowed in the IDF, which reached what it considers a "new milestone" in 2006, creating the first company of soldiers segregated in an all-female unit, the Nachshol (Hebrew for "giant wave") Reconnaissance Company. "We are the only unit in the world made up entirely of female combat soldiers," said Nachshol Company Commander Cpt. Dana Ben-Ezra. "Our effectiveness and the dividends we earn are the factors by which we are measured, not our gender."[56]
With the rise of social media platforms such asTikTok andTwitter, some critics claim that women in the IDF are frequently used as tools of propaganda, with official military accounts frequently posting attractive young women to create a sympathetic social media presence.[57]
Minorities in the IDF
Non-Jewish minorities tended to serve in one of several special units: theSword Battalion, also known as Unit 300 or the Minorities Unit, until it was disbanded in 2015;[58] the Druze Reconnaissance Unit; and the Trackers Unit, composed mostly ofNegev Bedouins. In 1982, the IDF general staff decided to integrate the armed forces by opening up other units to minorities, while placing some Jewish conscripts in the Minorities Unit. Until 1988, the Intelligence Corps and the Air Force remained closed to minorities.
Although Israel has a majority of Jewish soldiers, all citizens including large numbers ofDruze andCircassian men are subject to mandatory conscription.[59] Originally, they served in the framework of a special unit called "The Minorities' Unit", which operated until 2015 in the form of the independent Herev Gdud("Sword") battalion. However, since the 1980s Druze soldiers have increasingly protested this practice, which they considered a means of segregating them and denying them access to elite units (likesayeret units). The army has increasingly admitted Druze soldiers to regular combat units and promoted them to higher ranks from which they had been previously excluded.
In 2015, Rav AlufGadi Eizenkot ordered the unit's closure to assimilate the Druze soldiers no differently than Jewish soldiers, as part of an ongoing reorganization of the army. Several Druze officers reached ranks as high as Major General, and many received commendations for distinguished service. In proportion to their numbers, the Druze people achieve much higher—documented—levels in the Israeli army than other soldiers. Nevertheless, some Druze still charge that discrimination continues, such as exclusion from theAir Force, although the official low-security classification for Druze has been abolished for some time. The first Druze aircraft navigator completed his training course in 2005. Like all Air Force pilots, his identity is not disclosed. During the1948 Arab–Israeli War, many Druze who had initially sided with the Arabs deserted their ranks to either return to their villages or side with Israel in various capacities.[60]
Since the late 1970s, the Druze Initiative Committee, centred at the village ofBeit Jan and linked toMaki, has campaigned to abolish Druze conscription.
Military service is a tradition among some of the Druze population, with most opposition in Druze communities of theGolan Heights. 83 per cent of Druze boys serve in the army, according to the IDF's statistics.[61] According to the Israeli army in 2010, 369 Druze soldiers had been killed in combat operations since 1948.[62]
Bedouins and Israeli Arabs
Bedouin soldiers in 1949Israeli Arab soldiers, serving in theGalilee in 1978Bedouin Desert Reconnaissance Battalion, visiting an Arab school
By law, all Israeli citizens are subject to conscription. The Defense Minister has complete discretion to grant exemption to individual citizens or classes of citizens. A long-standing policy dating to Israel's early years extends an exemption to all other Israeli minorities (most notablyIsraeli Arabs). However, there is a long-standing government policy of encouragingBedouins to volunteer and of offering them various inducements, and in some impoverished Bedouin communities a military career seems one of the few means of (relative) social mobility available. Also, Muslims and Christians are accepted as volunteers, even if older than 18.[63]
From among non-Bedouin Arab citizens, the number of volunteers for military service—someChristian Arabs and even a few Muslim Arabs—is minute, and the government makes no special effort to increase it. Six Israeli Arabs have received orders of distinction as a result of their military service; of them the most famous is a Bedouin officer, Lieutenant Colonel Abd el-Majid Hidr (also known asAmos Yarkoni), who received the Order of Distinction. Vahid el Huzil was the first Bedouin to be a battalion commander.[64][65]
Until the second term ofYitzhak Rabin as Prime Minister (1992–1995), social benefits given to families in which at least one member (including a grandfather, uncle, or cousin) had served at some time in the armed forces were significantly higher than to "non-military" families, which was considered a means of blatant discrimination between Jews and Arabs. Rabin led the abolition of the measure, in the teeth of strong opposition from the Right. At present, the only official advantage of military service is the attaining of security clearance and serving in some types of government positions (in most cases, security-related), as well as some indirect benefits.
Rather than perform army service, Israeli Arab youths have the option to volunteer tonational service and receive benefits similar to those received by discharged soldiers. The volunteers are generally allocated to Arab populations, where they assist with social and community matters. As of 2010[update], 1,473 Arabs were volunteering for national service. According to sources in the national service administration, Arab leaders are counselling youths to refrain from performing services to the state. According to a National Service official, "For years the Arab leadership has demanded, justifiably, benefits for Arab youths similar to those received by discharged soldiers. Now, when this opportunity is available, it is precisely these leaders who reject the state's call to come and do the service, and receive these benefits."[66]
Although Arabs are not obliged to serve in the IDF, any Arab can volunteer. In 2008, a Muslim Arab woman was serving as a medic with unit 669.[67]
Other Arab-Muslim officers who have served in the IDF areSecond Lieutenant Hisham Abu Varia[69] andMajor Ala Wahib, the highest ranking Muslim officer in the IDF in 2013.[70]
In October 2012, the IDF promoted Mona Abdo to become the first female Christian Arab to the rank of combat commander. Abdo had voluntarily enlisted in the IDF, which her family had encouraged, and transferred from theOrdnance Corps to theCaracal Battalion, a mixed-gender unit with both Jewish and Arab soldiers.[71]
In 2014, an increase in Israeli Christian Arabs joining the army was reported.[72]
Muslim Arabs have also been drafted into the Israel Defense Forces in increasing numbers in recent years. In 2020, 606 Muslim Arabs were drafted, compared to 489 in 2019 and 436 in 2018. More than half of those who have drafted have gone into combat roles.[73][74][75]
Ethiopian Jews
The IDF carried out extended missions inEthiopia and neighbouring states, whose purpose was to protectEthiopian Jews (Beta Israel) and to help their immigration to Israel.[76] The IDF adopted policies and special activities for the absorption and integration of Ethiopian immigrant soldiers, reported to have much improved the achievements and integration of those soldiers in the army, and Israeli society in general.[77][78] Statistical research showed that the Ethiopian soldiers are esteemed as excellent soldiers and many aspire to be recruited to combat units.[79]
Under a special arrangement calledTorato Umanuto,Haredi men could choose to defer service while enrolled inyeshivot and many avoided conscription altogether. This has given riseto tensions between the Israeli religious and secular communities. In 2024, theSupreme Court unanimously ruled that Haredi men were eligible for compulsory service and the army began drafting them.[35][36]
Haredi males have the option of serving in the97th "Netzah Yehuda" Infantry Battalion. This unit is a standard IDF infantry battalion focused on theJenin region. To facilitate Haredi soldiers to serve, the Netzah Yehuda military bases follow the standards ofJewish dietary laws. The only women permitted on these bases were wives of soldiers and officers. Some Haredim serve in the IDF via theHesder system, principally designed for theReligious Zionist sector. It is a 5-year program which includes 2 years of religious studies, 1½ years of military service and 1½ years of religious studies during which the soldiers can be recalled to active duty at any moment. Haredi soldiers may join other units of the IDF but rarely do. Although the IDF claims it will not discriminate against women, it is offering Haredim "women free and secular free" recruitment centres. Defense Minister Moshe Ya'alon expressed his willingness to relax regulations to meet the demands of ultra-Orthodox rabbis. Regulations regardinggender equality had already been relaxed so that Haredim could be assured that men would not receive physical exams from female medical staff.[80]
In 2024, theHasmonean Brigade, a Haredi infantry unit, was created to accommodate Haredi soldiers. In January 2025, the unit received its first 50 soldiers.[81]
Since the beginning of theIsrael-Hamas War, 600 Haredim have enlisted through theShlav Bet program, an IDF recruitment track intended for Haredim over the age of 26 to complete military service.[82][83]
Since the early 1990s, sexual identity has presented no formal barrier in terms of soldiers' military specialization or eligibility for promotion.[84][85]
Until the 1980s, the IDF tended to discharge soldiers who were openly gay. In 1983, the IDF permitted homosexuals to serve but banned them from intelligence and top-secret positions. A decade later, professor Uzi Even,[86] an IDF reserves officer and chairman ofTel Aviv University's Chemistry Department, revealed that his rank had been revoked and that he had been barred from researching sensitive topics in military intelligence, solely because of his sexual orientation. His testimony to theKnesset in 1993 raised a political storm, forcing the IDF to remove such restrictions against gays.[84]
The chief of staff's policy states that it is strictly forbidden to harm or hurt anyone's dignity or feeling based on their gender or sexual orientation in any way, including signs, slogans, pictures, poems, lectures, any means of guidance, propaganda, publishing, voicing, and utterance. Moreover, gays in the IDF have additional rights, such as the right to take a shower alone if they want to. According to aUniversity of California, Santa Barbara study,[86] a brigadier general stated that Israelis show a "great tolerance" for gay soldiers. ConsulDavid Saranga at the Israeli Consulate in New York, who was interviewed by theSt. Petersburg Times, said, "It's a non-issue. You can be a very good officer, a creative one, a brave one, and be gay at the same time."[84]
A study published by theIsrael Gay Youth (IGY) Movement in January 2012 found that half of the homosexual soldiers who serve in the IDF suffer from violence and homophobia, although the head of the group said "I am happy to say that the intention among the top brass is to change that."[87]
Deaf and hard-of-hearing people
Israel is the only country in the world that requires deaf and hard-of-hearing people to serve in the military.[88] Sign language interpreters are provided during training, and many of them serve in non-combat capacities such as mapping and office work. The major language spoken by the deaf and hard-of-hearing in Israel isIsraeli Sign Language (also called Shassi)–a language related toGerman Sign Language but not Hebrew or any other local language–though Israel and Palestine are home to numerous sign languages spoken by various populations like Bedouins'Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language.
Vegans
According to aCare2 report, vegans in the IDF may refuse vaccination if they oppose animal testing.[89] They are given artificial leather boots and a black fleece beret.[90] Until 2014, vegan soldiers in the IDF received special allowances to buy their own food, when this policy was replaced with vegan food being provided in all bases, as well as vegan combat rations being offered to vegan combat soldiers.[91]
Non-immigrating foreign volunteers typically serve with the IDF in one of five ways:
TheMahal program targets young non-Israeli Jews or Israeli citizens who grew up abroad (men younger than 24 and women younger than 21). The program consists typically of 18 months of IDF service, including a lengthy training for those in combat units or (for 18 months) one month of non-combat training and an additional two months of learningHebrew after enlisting, if necessary. There are two additional subcategories of Mahal, both geared solely for religious men: MahalNahal Haredi (18 months), and MahalHesder, which combines yeshiva study of 5 months with IDF service of 16 months, for a total of 21 months. Similar IDF programs exist for Israeli overseas residents. To be accepted as a Mahal Volunteer, one must be of Jewish descent (at least one Jewish grandparent).
Sar-El, an organization subordinate to the IsraeliLogistics Corps, provides a volunteer program for non-Israeli citizens who are 17 years or older (or 15 if accompanied by a parent). The program is also aimed at Israeli citizens, aged 30 years or older, living abroad who did not serve in the Israeli Army and who now wish to finalize their status with the military. The program usually consists of three weeks of volunteer service on different rear army bases, doing non-combative work.
Garin Tzabar offers a program mainly for Israelis who emigrated with their parents to the United States at a young age. Although a basic knowledge of the Hebrew language is not mandatory, it is helpful. Of all the programs listed, only Garin Tzabar requires full-length service in the IDF. The program is set up in stages: first, the participants go through five seminars in their country of origin, then have an absorption period in Israel at akibbutz. Each delegation is adopted by a kibbutz in Israel and has living quarters designated for it. The delegation shares responsibilities in the kibbutz when on military leave. Participants start the program three months before being enlisted in the army at the beginning of August.
Marva is short-term basic training for two months.
Lev LaChayal is a program based atYeshivat Lev Hatorah which takes a holistic approach to preparation for service. Being as ready as possible to integrate into Israeli culture, handling the physical challenges of the military, and maintaining religious values require a multi-pronged approach. The beit midrash learning, classes, physical training, and even recreational activities are designed to allow for maximum readiness.
In 1992, the IDF drafted a Code of Conduct that combines international law, Israeli law, Jewish heritage and the IDF's traditional ethical code—theIDF Spirit (Hebrew:רוח צה"ל,Ru'ah Tzahal).[92]
The document defines four core values for all IDF soldiers to follow, including "defense of the state, its citizens and its residents", "love of the homeland and loyalty to the country", "human dignity" and "stateliness, as well as ten secondary values.[92][93][94][95]
"The Spirit of the IDF" (cf. supra) is still considered the only binding moral code that formally applies to the IDF troops. In 2009,Amos Yadlin (then head ofMilitary Intelligence) suggested that the article he co-authored withAsa Kasher be ratified as a formal binding code, arguing that "the current code ['The Spirit of the IDF'] does not sufficiently address one of the army's most pressing challenges:asymmetric warfare against terrorist organizations that operate amid a civilian population".[96]
In 2005,Asa Kasher andAmos Yadlin co-authored a noticed article published in theJournal of Military Ethics under the title: "Military Ethics of Fighting Terror: An Israeli Perspective". The article was meant as an "extension of the classical Just War Theory", and as a "[needed] third model" or missing paradigm besides which of "classical war (army) and law enforcement (police).", resulting in a "doctrine (...) on the background of the IDF fight against acts and activities of terror performed by Palestinian individuals and organizations."[101]
In this article, Kasher and Yadlin concluded thattargeted killings of terrorists were justifiable, even at the cost of hitting nearby civilians. In a 2009 interview toHaaretz, Asa Kasher later confirmed, pointing to the fact that in an area in which the IDF does not have effective security control (e.g., Gaza, vs. East-Jerusalem), soldiers' lives protection takes priority over avoiding injury to enemy civilians.[102] Some, along withAvishai Margalit andMichael Walzer, have disputed this argument, arguing that such a position was "contrary to centuries of theorizing about the morality of war as well as international humanitarian law",[103] since drawing "a sharp line between combatants and noncombatants" would be "the only morally relevant distinction that all those involved in a war can agree on."[104]
The Hannibal Directive is a controversial procedure that the IDF has used to prevent the capture of Israeli soldiers by enemy forces. It was introduced in 1986, after some abductions of IDF soldiers in Lebanon and the subsequent controversial prisoner exchanges. The full text of the directive has never been published and until 2003Israeli military censorship even forbade any discussion of the subject in the press. The directive has been changed several times. At one time the formulation was that "the kidnapping must be stopped by all means, even at the price of striking and harming our own forces."[105]
The Hannibal directive has, at times, apparently existed in two different versions, one top-secret written version, accessible only to the upper echelon of the IDF, and one "oral law" version for division commanders and lower levels. In the latter versions, "by all means" was often interpreted literally, as in "an IDF soldier was better dead than abducted". In 2011, IDF Chief of StaffBenny Gantz stated the directive does not permit the killing of IDF soldiers.[106]
The Dahiya doctrine[107] is a military strategy ofasymmetric warfare, outlined by former IDF Chief of General StaffGadi Eizenkot, which encompasses the use of aerial and artillery fire against civilian infrastructure used by terrorist organizations[108] and endorses the employment of "disproportionate power" to secure that end.[109][110] The doctrine is named after theDahieh neighborhood of Beirut, whereHezbollah was headquartered during the2006 Lebanon War, which were heavily damaged by the IDF.[108]
Budget
This section needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(July 2024)
During 1950–66, Israel spent an average of 9% of its GDP on defense. Defence expenditures increased dramatically after both the 1967 and 1973 wars. They reached a high of about 30% of GDP in 1975, but have since come down significantly, following the signing of peace agreements with Jordan and Egypt.[111]
In September 2009, Defense Minister Ehud Barak, Finance MinisterYuval Steinitz and Prime MinisterBenjamin Netanyahu endorsed an additional NIS 1.5 billion for the defense budget to help Israel address problems regarding Iran. The budget changes came two months after Israel had approved its two-year budget. The defence budget in 2009 stood at NIS 48.6 billion and NIS 53.2 billion for 2010 – the highest amount in Israel's history. The figure constituted 6.3% of expected gross domestic product and 15.1% of the overall budget, even before the planned NIS 1.5 billion addition.[112]
In 2011, the prime ministerBenjamin Netanyahu reversed course and moved to make significant cuts in the defence budget to pay for social programs.[113] The General Staff concluded that the proposed cuts endangered the battle readiness of the armed forces.[114] In 2012, Israel spent $15.2 billion on its armed forces, one of the highest ratios of defense spending to GDP among developed countries ($1,900 per person). However, Israel's spending per capita is below that of the US.[115]
Israel has developed observationballoons equipped with sophisticated cameras and surveillance systems used to thwart terror attacks from Gaza.[118] The IDF also possesses advancedcombat engineering equipment which includes theIDF Caterpillar D9armoured bulldozer,IDF PumaCEV, Tzefa Shiryon and CARPET minefield breaching rockets, and a variety ofrobots and explosive devices.
The IDF has several large internalresearch and development departments, and it purchases many technologies produced by the Israeli security industries includingIAI,IMI,Elbit Systems,Rafael, and dozens of smaller firms. Many of these developments have been battle-tested in Israel's numerous military engagements, making the relationship mutually beneficial, the IDF getting tailor-made solutions and the industries a good reputation.[citation needed]
In response to the price overruns on the USLittoral Combat Ship program, Israel is considering producing their ownwarships, which would take a decade[119] and depend on diverting US financing to the project.[120]
Israel'sArrow anti-ballistic missile system, jointly funded and produced by Israel and the United States, has successfully conducted combat intercepts of incoming ballistic missile attacks.[128] TheIron Dome system against short-rangerockets is operational and proved to be successful, intercepting hundreds ofQassam,122 mm Grad andFajr-5 artilleryrockets fire by Palestinian militants from the Gaza Strip.[129][130]David's Sling, an anti-missile system designed to countermedium range rockets, became operational in 2017. Israel has also worked with the US on the development of a tactical high energylaser system against medium-range rockets (called Nautilus orTHEL).Iron Beam is a short-range laser beam air defence system, created to eliminate rockets, artillery, and mortar bombs. With a range of several kilometres, it complements the Iron Dome system, which is specifically designed for intercepting missiles launched from greater distances.[131]
Israel has the independent capability of launchingreconnaissance satellites into orbit, a capability shared with Russia, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, South Korea, Italy, Germany, the People's Republic of China, India, Japan, Brazil and Ukraine. Israeli security industries developed both the satellites (Ofeq) and the launchers (Shavit).[132][133]
One staple of these rations wasloof, a type of Kosherspam made from chicken or beef that was phased out around 2008.[144] Food historian Gil Marks has written that: "Many Israeli soldiers insist that Loof uses all the parts of the cow that the hot dog manufacturers will not accept, but no one outside of the manufacturer and the kosher supervisors know what is inside."[145]
The IDF is planning several technological upgrades and structural reforms for the future of its land, air, and sea branches. Training has been increased, including cooperation between ground, air, and naval units.[146]
The Israeli Army is phasing out the M-16 rifle from all ground units in favor of theIMI Tavor variants, most recently theIWI Tavor X95 flat-top ("Micro-Tavor Dor Gimel").[147] The IDF is replacing its outdatedM113 armored personnel carriers in favor of newNamer APCs, with 200 ordered in 2014, theEitan AFV, and is upgrading itsIDF Achzarit APCs.[148][149] The IDF announced plans to streamline its military bureaucracy so as to better maintain its reserve force, which a 2014 State Comptroller report noted was under-trained and may not be able to fulfill wartime missions. As part of the plans, 100,000 reservists will be discharged, and training for the remainder will be improved. The officer corps will be slashed by 5,000. Infantry and light artillery brigades will be reduced to increase training standards among the rest.[150]
The IDF is planning a future tank to replace the Merkava. The new tank will be able to fire lasers and electromagnetic pulses, run on a hybrid engine, run with a crew as small as two, will be faster, and will be better protected, with emphasis on protection systems such as the Trophy over armour.[151][152] TheCombat Engineering Corps assimilated new technologies, mainly in tunnel detection andunmanned ground vehicles andmilitary robots, such as remote-controlledIDF Caterpillar D9T "Panda" armoured bulldozers, Sahar engineering scout robot and improvedRemotec ANDROS robots.
TheIsraeli Air Force will purchase as many as 100F-35 Lightning II fighter jets from the United States. The aircraft will be modified and designated F-35I. They will use Israeli-built electronic warfare systems, outer wings, guided bombs, and air-to-air missiles.[153][154][155] As part of a 2013 arms deal, the IAF will purchaseKC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft andV-22 Osprey multi-mission aircraft from the United States, as well as advanced radars for warplanes and missiles designed to take out radars.[156] In April 2013, an Israeli official stated that within 40–50 years, piloted aircraft would be phased out of service byunmanned aerial vehicles capable of executing nearly any operation that can be performed by piloted combat aircraft. Israel's military industries are reportedly on the path to developing such technology in a few decades. Israel will also manufacture tactical satellites for military use.[157]
TheIsraeli Navy is currently expanding its submarine fleet, with a planned total of sixDolphin class submarines. Currently, five have been delivered, with the sixth, INS Drakon, expected to be delivered in 2020.[158] It is also upgrading and expanding its surface fleet. It is planning to upgrade the electronic warfare systems of itsSa'ar 5-class corvettes andSa'ar 4.5 class missile boats,[159] and has ordered two new classes of warship: theSa'ar 6-class corvette (a variant of theBraunschweig-class corvette) and theSa'ar 72-class corvette, an improved and enlarged version of the Sa'ar 4.5-class. It plans to acquire four Saar 6-class corvettes and three Sa'ar 72-class corvettes. Israel is also developing marine artillery, including a gun capable of firing satellite-guided 155mm rounds between 75 and 120 kilometres.[160]
Foreign military relations
France
Starting on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708), when Israel became a sovereign state, a strong military, commercial and political relationship was established between France and Israel, which lasted until 1969. Between 1956 and 1966, the two countries had the highest level of military collaboration.[161]
In 1983, the United States and Israel established aJoint Political Military Group, which convenes twice a year. Both the U.S. and Israel participate in joint military planning and combined exercises and have collaborated on military research and weapons development. Additionally theU.S. military maintains two classified, pre-positionedWar Reserve Stocks in Israel valued at $493 million.[citation needed] Israel has the official distinction of being an AmericanMajor non-NATO ally.Since 1976, Israel had been the largest annual recipient of U.S. foreign assistance. In 2009, Israel received $2.55 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF) grants from the Department of Defense.[162] All but 26% of this military aid is for the purchase of military hardware from American companies only.[162]
In October 2012, the United States and Israel began their biggest joint air and missile defence exercise, known asAustere Challenge 12, involving around 3,500 U.S. troops in the region along with 1,000 IDF personnel.[163] Germany and Britain also participated.[164]
Since mid-2017, the United States has operated an anti-missile system in theNegev region of Southern Israel, which is manned by 120 US Army personnel. It is a facility used by the U.S. inside a largerMashabim Israeli Air Force base.[165]
India and Israel enjoy strong military and strategic ties.[166] Israeli authorities consider Indian citizens to be the most pro-Israel people in the world.[167][168][169][170][171] Apart from being Israel's second-largest economic partner in Asia,[172] India is also the largest customer of Israeli arms in the world.[173] In 2006, annual military sales between India and Israel stood at US$900 million.[174] Israeli defense firms had the largest exhibition at the 2009Aero India show, during which Israel offered several state-of-the art weapons to India.[175]
The first major military deal between the two countries was the sale of IsraeliPhalconairborne warning and control system (AWACS) radars to theIndian Air Force in 2004.[176][177] In March 2009, India and Israel signed a US$1.4 billion deal under which Israel would sell India an advanced air-defense system.[178] India and Israel have also embarked on extensive space cooperation. In 2008, India'sISRO launched Israel's most technologically advancedspy satelliteTecSAR.[179] In 2009, India reportedly developed a high-tech spy satelliteRISAT-2 with significant assistance from Israel.[180] The satellite was successfully launched by India in April 2009.[181]
According to a Los Angeles Times news story, the2008 Mumbai attacks were an attack on the growing India-Israel partnership. It quotes retired Indian Vice Admiral Premvir S. Das thus "Their aim was to... tell the Indians clearly that your growing linkage with Israel is not what you should be doing..."[182] In the past, India and Israel have held numerous joint anti-terror training exercises[183]
Germany developed theDolphin submarine and supplied it to Israel. Two submarines were donated by Germany.[184] The military co-operation has been discreet but mutually profitable:Israeli intelligence, for example, sent capturedWarsaw Pact armor to West Germany to be analyzed. The results aided the German development of ananti-tank system.[185] Israel also trained members ofGSG 9, a German counter-terrorism and special operations unit.[186] The IsraeliMerkava MK IV tank uses a GermanV12 engine produced under license.[187]
In 2008, the website DefenseNews revealed that Germany and Israel had been jointly developing a nuclear warning system, Operation Bluebird.[188][189]
The United Kingdom has supplied equipment and spare parts forSa'ar 4.5-class missile boats andF-4 Phantom fighter-bombers, components for small-calibre artillery ammunition and air-to-surface missiles, and engines forElbit Hermes 450Unmanned aerial vehicles. British arms sales to Israel mainly consist of light weaponry, and ammunition and components for helicopters, tanks, armoured personnel carriers, and combat aircraft.[190][191]
On 19 October 1999, the Defense Minister of China, GeneralChi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defense MinisterMustafa Tlass inDamascus,Syria, to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, then flew directly to Israel and met withEhud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defense Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1 billion Israeli–Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.[192]
Israel is the second-largest foreign supplier of arms to the People's Republic of China, only after theRussian Federation. China has purchased a wide array of military hardware from Israel, includingUnmanned aerial vehicles andcommunications satellites. China has become an extensive market for Israel's military industries and arms manufacturers, and trade with Israel has allowed it to obtain "dual-use" technology which the United States andEuropean Union were reluctant to provide.[198] In 2010Yair Golan, head ofIDF Home Front Command visited China to strengthen military ties.[199] In 2012,IDF Chief of StaffBenny Gantz visited China for high-level talks with the Chinese defence establishment.[200]
As closely neighbouring countries, Israel and Cyprus have enjoyed greatly improving diplomatic relations since 2010. During theMount Carmel Forest Fire, Cyprus dispatched two aviation assets to assist fire-fighting operations in Israel – the first time Cypriot Government aircraft were permitted to operate from Israeli airfields in a non-civil capacity.[201] Israel and Cyprus have closely cooperated in maritime activities relating to Gaza, since 2010, and have reportedly begun an extensive sharing program of regional intelligence to support mutual security concerns. In May 2012, it was widely reported that the Israeli Air Force had been granted unrestricted access to the Nicosia Flight Information Region of Cyprus and that Israeli aviation assets may have operated over the island itself.[202]
Two IAFApache AH-64D Longbows and one Greek AH-64A fly above the Greek countryside during a joint exercise, June 2011.
Since 2010, the Israeli and Greek air forces trained jointly in Greece, indicating a boost in ties due in large part to Israel's rift with Turkey.[203] Recent purchases include 100 million euro deal between Greece and Israel for the purchase ofSPICE 1000 and SPICE 2000 pound bomb kits.[204] In November 2011, theIsraeli Air Force hosted Greece'sHellenic Air Force in a joint exercise at theUvda base.[205][206] Similar training was held in 2012 by the IAF in cooperation with the Hellenic Air Force in thePeloponnese and parts of southern Greece in a response to the need of the IAF training of pilots in unfamiliar areas.[207][208] On March 14, 2013, the navies of Israel, Greece and the US held a two-week joint military exercise for the third year in a row. The annual operation is nicknamed Noble Dina and was established in 2011. Similar to Noble Dina in 2012, the exercise in 2013 included defending offshore natural gas platforms and simulated air-to-air combat and anti-submarine warfare.[209][210][211] In March 2017, Israel participated in the large-scale "Iniochus 2017" military exercise, which is organized annually by Greece, along with USA, Italy and the United Arab Emirates.[212][213]
Israel has provided extensive military assistance to Turkey. Israel sold TurkeyIAI HeronUnmanned aerial vehicles, and modernized Turkey'sF-4 Phantom andNorthrop F-5 aircraft at the cost of $900 million. Turkey'smain battle tank is the Israeli-madeSabra tank, of which Turkey has 170. Israel later upgraded them for $500 million. Israel has also supplied Turkey with Israeli-made missiles, and the two nations have engaged in naval cooperation. Turkey allowed Israeli pilots to practice long-range flying over mountainous terrain in Turkey's Konya firing range, while Israel trains Turkish pilots at Israel's computerized firing range atNevatim Airbase.[214][215] Until 2009, the Turkish military was one of Israel's largest defence customers. Israel defence companies have sold unmanned aerial vehicles and long-range targeting pods.[216]
However, relations have been strained in recent times. SInce 2010 the Turkish military has declined to participate in the annual joint naval exercise with Israel and the United States.[217][218] The exercise, known as "Reliant Mermaid" was started in 1998 and included the Israeli, Turkish and American navies.[219] The objective of the exercise is to practice search-and-rescue operations and to familiarize each navy with international partners who also operate in theMediterranean Sea.[220]
Azerbaijan and Israel have engaged in intense cooperation since 1992.[221] Israeli military have been a major provider of battlefield aviation, artillery, antitank, and anti-infantry weaponry to Azerbaijan.[222][223] In 2009, Israeli PresidentShimon Peres made a visit to Azerbaijan where military relations were expanded further, with the Israeli companyAeronautics Defense Systems Ltd announcing it was going to build a factory inBaku.[224]
Israel Defense Forces parades took place on Independence Day, during the first 25 years of the State of Israel's existence. They were cancelled after 1973 due to financial and security concerns. The Israel Defense Forces still have weapon exhibitions country-wide on Independence Day, but they are stationary.
^"THE STATE: Israel Defense Forces (IDF)".Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs.Archived from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved18 August 2021.The IDF's three service branches (ground forces, air force, and navy) function under a unified command, headed by the Chief of the General Staff, with the rank of lieutenant-general, who is responsible to the minister of defence.
^There is a wide range of estimates as to the size of the Israeli nuclear arsenal. For a compiled list of estimates, seeAvner Cohen,The Worst-Kept Secret: Israel's bargain with the Bomb (Columbia University Press, 2010), Table 1, page xxvii and page 82.
^ab"HAGANAH".encyclopedia.com. The Gale Group, Inc.Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved23 January 2019.The Haganah ("defense") was founded in June 1920...
^Pa'il, Meir (1982). "The Infantry Brigades". In Yehuda Schiff (ed.).IDF in Its Corps: Army and Security Encyclopedia (in Hebrew). Vol. 11. Revivim Publishing. p. 15.
^abLauren Gelfond Feldinger (21 September 2008)."Skirting history".The Jerusalem Post.Archived from the original on 21 December 2022. Retrieved22 March 2011.
^Cpl. Elinor Joseph, first female Arab combat soldier in IDF: "proud to serve" ",[citation needed] "I treated all the people at the checkpoints in the same manner because we are all human. For this reason, no one negatively reacted to me, and to tell the truth, that surprised me." Elinor's presence also helped change people’s perceptions, "People knew I was there and that I wouldn't hold my tongue if need be, so they had a constant reminder to treat the Palestinians well. But really, their treatment was always full of respect."
^Pevzner, Yana (13 October 2010)."The lone Arab Soldier".Ynet.Archived from the original on 31 October 2010. Retrieved27 October 2010.
^The Jewish State: The Struggle for Israel's Soul. Yoram Hazony. 2001. Page 54
^The Beta Israel in Ethiopia and Israel: studies on Ethiopian Jews By Tudor Parfitt, Emanuela Trevisan Semi. p.170
^Israel social science research, Volumes 10–11. Hubert H. Humphrey Center for Social Ecology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 1995. p.70
^Becoming Ethiopian Israelis: An Appraisal of the Adjustment of the Ethiopian Jewish Community to Israeli Society. Ami Steinberger, Pepperdine University. 2006. p.24
^Suzanne B. Goldberg, "Open Service and Our Allies: A Report on the Inclusion of Openly Gay and Lesbian Servicemembers in U.S. Allies' Armed Forces,"William & Mary Journal of Women & Law (2011) v 17 pp 547–90onlineArchived 13 September 2014 at theWayback Machine
^Meir Elran; Asa Kasher (2 August 2022)."Stateliness, IDF style". The Institure for National Security Studies.Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved6 November 2022.
^Rabin, Roni Caryn (4 January 2024)."Israelis Question Army's Rules of Engagement After Hostages Slain".The New York Times.The details of the rules of engagement — the conditions under which soldiers are permitted to open fire — are classified because publicizing them would enable enemy forces to take advantage of them, said Mr.Dinar, adding that they were consistent with international law.
^"בג"ץ 769/02" (in Hebrew).Archived from the original on 30 October 2011. Retrieved5 February 2016.
^Kasher, A.; Yadlin, A. (April 2005). "Military Ethics of Fighting Terror: An Israeli Perspective (abstract)".Journal of Military Ethics.4 (1):3–32.doi:10.1080/15027570510014642.S2CID144060204.
^Walzer, Michael; Margalit, Avishai (14 May 2009)."Israel: Civilians & Combatants".The New York Review of Books. Vol. 56, no. 8.Archived from the original on 16 June 2019. Retrieved28 June 2019 – via www.nybooks.com.
^Weizman, Eyal (2017).Forensic Architecture, VIOLENCE AT THE THRESHOLD OF DETECTABILITY. New York: Zone Books.ISBN9781935408864., page 176.
^ab'the threat to destroy the civilian infrastructure of hostile regimes, as Israel did to the Dahiya neighbourhood of Beirut, where Hizbollah was headquartered in 2006' Daniel Byman ,A High Price: The Triumphs and Failures of Israeli Counterterrorism, Oxford University Press, 2011 p.364
^Brower, Kenneth S., "A Propensity for Conflict: Potential Scenarios and Outcomes of War in the Middle East,"Jane's Intelligence Review, Special Report no. 14, (February 1997), 14–15. Brower notes that he is making a high estimate of the number of weapons.
^Robert S. Norris and Hans M. Kristensen (November–December 2004).U.S. nuclear weapons in Europe, 1954–2004(PDF). Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.Archived(PDF) from the original on 21 May 2011. Retrieved11 June 2009.
^140suffolk (21 April 2009)."digg article". digg article. Archived fromthe original on 22 July 2010. Retrieved1 October 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Ramachandran, Sudha (21 December 2004)."US up in arms over Sino-Israel ties".Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 24 December 2004. Retrieved10 June 2010.
Ostfeld, Zehava (1994). Shiftel, Shoshana (ed.).צבא נולד : שלבים עיקריים בבניית הצבא בהנהגתו של דוד בן־גוריון / Tsava nolad : shelavim ʻiḳariyim bi-veniyat ha-tsava be-hanhagato shel Daṿid Ben-Guryon [An Army Is Born] (in Hebrew). Israel Ministry of Defense.ISBN978-965-05-0695-7.
Gelber, Yoav (1986).Nucleus for a Standing Army (in Hebrew). Yad Ben Tzvi.
Yehuda Shif, ed. (1982).IDF in Its Corps: Army and Security Encyclopedia. 18 volumes (in Hebrew). Revivim Publishing.
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