TheIndus Gorge is formed as the Indus River bends around theNanga Parbat massif, shown towering behind, defining the western anchor of theHimalayan mountain range.
Geologically, theheadwaters of the Indus and to their east those of theYarlung Tsangpo (later in its course, theBrahmaputra) flow along theIndus-Yarlung suture zone, which defines the boundary along which theIndian plate collided with theEurasian plate in theEarly Eocene (approximately 50Million years ago).[15] These two Eurasian rivers, whose courses were continually diverted by the rising Himalayas, define the western and eastern limits, respectively, of the mountain range.[15] After the Indusdebouches from its narrow Himalayan valley, it forms, along with its tributaries, thePunjab region of South Asia. The lower course of the river ends ina large delta in theSindh province of Pakistan.
Historically, the Indus was important to many cultures. The 3rd millennium BC saw the rise ofIndus Valley Civilisation, a major urban civilization of the Bronze Age. During the 2nd millennium BC, the Punjab region was mentioned in theRigveda hymns asSapta Sindhu and in theAvesta religious texts asHapta Həndu (both terms meaning "seven rivers"). Early historical kingdoms that arose in the Indus Valley includeGandhāra andSindhu-Sauvīra. The Indus River came into the knowledge of the Western world early in theclassical period, whenKing Darius ofPersia sent his Greek subjectScylax of Caryanda to explore the river,c. 515 BC.[16]
Etymologically,English language word "Indus" comes fromLate Latin Indus (1598), specifically a use of classical LatinIndus (inhabitant of India, Indian) fromancient Greek Ἰνδός "inhabitant of India, Indian, the River Indus" fromAchaemenianOld Persian "hindu," denoting an eastern province of theAchaemenid empire (Persian languagehind India), andAvestanhiṇdu,həṇdu "river," (natural) frontier; with sameProto Indo-Iranian language-root asSanskrit sindhu (river), specifically the River Indus; hence also the region of the Indus, the province Sindh (which also developed intoHellenistic Greek Σίνθος ("the River Indus").[17][18] This river's traditional name inSanskrit and Tibetan is "sindhu". In Sanskrit, its range of meanings includes: stream, river; Indus; flood; sea or ocean; region or country in the vicinity of the Indus, Sindh, people of Sindh."[19][20]
The modern name inUrdu isSindh (Urdu:سندھ) orDaryā-i-Sindh (Urdu:دریائے سندھ,lit. 'The River Sindh'), contrasting to theProvince of Sindh (Urdu:صوبہِ سندھ,romanized: Sūba-i-sindh). TheLadakhis andTibetans call the riverSenge Tsangpo (སེང་གེ་གཙང་པོ།),Baltis call itGemtsuh andTsuh-Fo,Pashtuns call itNilab,Sher Darya andAbbasin, whileSindhis call itSindhu,Mehran,Purali andSamundar.[12][21]
The course of the Indus in the disputedKashmir region; the river flows throughLadakh andGilgit-Baltistan, administered respectively by India and Pakistan
The Indus River provides key water resources forPakistan's economy – especially thebreadbasket ofPunjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "land of five rivers" and the five rivers areJhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Beas andSutlej, all of which finally flow into the Indus. The Indus also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply ofpotable water in Pakistan.
The total length of the river varies in different sources. The length used in this article is 3,180 km (1,980 mi), taken from theHimalayan Climate and Water Atlas (2015).[6] Historically, the 1909The Imperial Gazetteer of India gave it as "just over 1,800 miles".[22] A shorter figure of 2,880 km (1,790 mi) has been widely used in modern sources, as has the one of 3,180 km (1,980 mi). The modernEncyclopedia Britannica was originally published in 1999 with the shorter measurement, but was updated in 2015 to use the longer measurement.[12] Both lengths are commonly found in modern publications; in some cases, both measurements can be found within the same work.[23] An extended figure of circa 3,600 km (2,200 mi) was announced by a Chinese research group in 2011, based on a comprehensive remeasurement from satellite imagery, and a ground expedition to identify an alternative source point, but detailed analysis has not yet been published.[24]
The ultimate source of the Indus is inTibet, but there is some debate about the exact source. The traditional source of the river is theSênggê Kanbab (Sênggê Zangbo) or "Lion's Mouth", a perennial spring not far from the sacredMount Kailash, marked by a long low line of Tibetanchortens. There are several other tributaries nearby, which may form a longer stream than Sênggê Kanbab, but unlike the Sênggê Kanbab, are all dependent onsnowmelt. TheZanskar River, which flows into the Indus in Ladakh, has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.[25] An alternative reckoning begins the river around 300 km further upstream, at theconfluence of theSênggê Zangbo andGar Tsangpo rivers, which drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan (Gang Rinpoche, Mt. Kailash) mountain ranges. The 2011 remeasurement suggested the source was a small lake northeast of Mount Kailash, rather than either of the two points previously used.[24]
The Indus then flows northwest throughLadakh (Indian-administered Kashmir) andBaltistan andGilgit (Pakistan-administered Kashmir), just south of theKarakoram range. TheShyok,Shigar andGilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south and descends into the Punjab plains atKalabagh, Pakistan. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500–5,200 metres (15,000–17,000 ft) deep near theNanga Parbatmassif. It flows swiftly acrossHazara and is dammed at theTarbela Reservoir. TheKabul River joins it nearAttock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in the plains of the Punjab[26] and Sindh, where the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by thePanjnad atMithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named theSatnad River (sat = "seven",nadī = "river"), as the river now carried the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. When the river passesJamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the South ofThatta in theSindh province of Pakistan.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world to exhibit atidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snow and glaciers of theHimalayas, Karakoram and theHindu Kush ranges. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons – it diminishes greatly in the winter while flooding its banks in themonsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times – it deviated westwards from flowing into theRann of Kutch and adjoiningBanni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake.[27][28] As of 2011[update], Indus water flows in to the Rann of Kutch during its floods breachingflood banks.[29]
The major cities of theIndus Valley Civilisation, such asHarappa andMohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilisation extended from across northeast Afghanistan toPakistan and northwest India,[30] with an upward reach from east of theJhelum River toRopar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended fromSutkagan Dor at the Pakistan-Iran border toKutch in modernGujarat, India. There is an Indus site on theAmu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus siteAlamgirpur at theHindon River is located only 28 km (17 mi) from Delhi. As of now, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of theGhaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well asLothal,Dholavira,Ganeriwala, andRakhigarhi. Only 40 Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries.[31] However, it is notable that majority of theIndus script seals and inscribed objects discovered were found at sites along the Indus river.[b][32][33]
TheRigveda describesseveral rivers, including one named "Sindhu". The Rigvedic "Sindhu" is thought to be the present-day Indus River. It is attested 176 times in its text, 94 times in the plural, and most often used in the generic sense of "river". In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular; for example, in the list of rivers mentioned in the hymn ofNadistuti sukta. The Rigvedic hymns apply a feminine gender to all the rivers mentioned therein, except for theBrahmaputra.
The word"India" is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to those regions immediately along the east bank of the Indus, where arePunjab andSindh now but by 300 BC, Greek writers includingHerodotus andMegasthenes were applying the term to the entire subcontinent that extends much farther eastward.[34][35]
The Indus River in the foreground and theNanga Parbat peak, the westernsyntaxis of the Himalayas, far in the background, a little faint but towering well above the cloud layer[c]Indus River nearLeh,Ladakh
The Indus River feeds the Indussubmarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on Earth.[36] It consists of around 5 million cubic kilometers of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that theKarakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that before five million years ago the Indus was not connected to thesePunjab rivers which instead flowed east into theGanga and were captured after that time.[37] Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time.[38] The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in theKatawaz Basin, on theAfghan-Pakistan border.
In theNanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area are thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.[39]
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region. The Mughal EmperorBabur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (theBaburnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of theShivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works. The Indus river and its watershed have a rich biodiversity. It is home to around 25 amphibian species.[40]
TheIndus river dolphin (Platanista indicus minor) is found only in the Indus River. It is a subspecies of theSouth Asian river dolphin. The Indus river dolphin formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to theWorld Wildlife Fund it is one of the most threatenedcetaceans with only about 1,816 still existing.[41] It is threatened by habitat degradation from the construction of dams and canals, entanglement in fishing gear, and industrial water pollution.[42]
There are two otter species in the Indus River basin: theEurasian otter in the northeastern highland sections and thesmooth-coated otter elsewhere in the river basin. The smooth-coated otters in the Indus River represent a subspecies found nowhere else, the Sindh otter (Lutrogale perspicillata sindica).[43]
The Indus River basin has high diversity, being the home of more than 180 freshwater fish species,[44] including 22 which are found nowhere else.[40] Fish also played a major role in earlier cultures of the region, including the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation where depictions of fish were frequent. TheIndus script has a commonly used fish sign, which in its various forms may simply have meant "fish", or referred to stars or gods.[45]
Palla fish (Tenualosa ilisha) of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fish in the river is moderately high, withSukkur,Thatta, andKotri being the major fishing centres – all in the lower Sindh course. As a result, damming and irrigation have made fish farming an important economic activity.
Skyline ofSukkur along the shores of the Indus River
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to thePunjab and Sindh plains – it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical since rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley.Irrigation canals were first built by the people of theIndus Valley civilisation, and later by the engineers of theKushan Empire and theMughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by theBritish East India Company in 1850 – the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. TheGuddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430 ft) long – irrigatingSukkur,Jacobabad,Larkana andKalat. TheSukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi).
TheIndus Basin Project consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, theMangla Dam built on the Jhelum River and theTarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams.[47] The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal – linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers – extending water supplies to the regions ofBahawalpur andMultan. Pakistan constructed theTarbela Dam nearRawalpindi – standing 2,743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80-kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. It supports theChashma Barrage near Dera Ismail Khan for irrigation use and flood control and theTaunsa Barrage nearDera Ghazi Khan which also produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. TheKotri Barrage nearHyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional water supplies for Karachi. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley ofPeshawar, in theKhyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton,sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
The ethnicities of the Indus Valley (Pakistan and Northwest India) have a greater amount of ANI (or West Eurasian) admixture than other South Asians, including inputs fromWestern Steppe Herders, with evidence of more sustained and multi-layered migrations from the west.[52]
Originally, the delta used to receive almost all of the water from the Indus River, which has an annual flow of approximately 180 billion cubic metres (240×10^9 cu yd), and is accompanied by 400 million tonnes (390×10^6 long tons) of silt.[53] Since the 1940s, dams, barrages and irrigation works have been constructed on the river. The Indus Basin Irrigation System is the "largest contiguous irrigation system developed over the past 140 years" anywhere in the world.[54] This has reduced the flow of water and by 2018, the average annual flow of water below theKotri barrage was 33 billion cubic metres (43×10^9 cu yd),[55] and annual amount of silt discharged was estimated at 100 million tonnes (98×10^6 long tons).[citation needed] As a result, the2010 Pakistan floods were considered "good news" for the ecosystem and population of the river delta as they brought much-needed fresh water.[56][57] Any further utilization of the river basin water is not economically feasible.[58][59]
Vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta are threatened by the reduced inflow of fresh water, along with extensive deforestation, industrial pollution andglobal warming. Damming has also isolated the delta population of Indus River dolphins from those further upstream.[60]
Large-scale diversion of the river's water for irrigation has raised far-reaching issues. Sediment clogging from poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation on numerous occasions. Irrigation itself is increasing soil salinization, reducing crop yields and in some cases rendering farmland useless for cultivation.[61]
TheTibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows... In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River. Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril.[62]
"There is insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus," says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence ofclimate change," and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 per cent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert [where], without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the answer to that question," he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned."
U.S. diplomatRichard Holbrooke said, shortly before he died in 2010, that he believed that falling water levels in the Indus River "could very well precipitate World War III."[63]
Over the years factories on the banks of the Indus River have increased levels of water pollution in the river and the atmosphere around it. High levels of pollutants in the river have led to the deaths of endangered Indus river dolphin. TheSindh Environmental Protection Agency has ordered polluting factories around the river to shut down under the Pakistan Environmental Protection Act, 1997.[64] Death of theIndus river dolphin has also been attributed to fishermen using poison to kill fish and scooping them up.[65][66] As a result, the government banned fishing fromGuddu Barrage toSukkur.[67]
The Indus is second among a group of ten rivers responsible for about 90% of all theplastic that reaches the oceans. TheYangtze is the only river contributing more plastic.[68][69]
Frequently, Indus River is prone to moderate to severe flooding.[70] In July 2010, following abnormally heavymonsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. InSindh, the Indus burst its banks nearSukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi.[71] In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward westernPunjab, where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh.[72] As of September 2010[update], over two thousand people had died and over a million homes had been destroyed since the flooding began.[73][74]
The 2011Sindh floods began during the Pakistani monsoon season in mid-August 2011, resulting from heavy monsoon rains in Sindh, eastern Balochistan, and southern Punjab.[75] The floods caused considerable damage; an estimated 434 civilians were killed, with 5.3 million people and 1,524,773 homes affected.[76] Sindh is a fertile region and often called the "breadbasket" of the country; the damage and toll of the floods on the local agrarian economy was said to be extensive. At least 1.7 million acres (690,000 ha; 2,700 sq mi) of arable land were inundated. The flooding followed the previous year's floods, which devastated a large part of the country.[76] Unprecedented torrential monsoon rains caused severe flooding in 16 districts of Sindh.[77]
In Pakistan currently there are sixbarrages on the Indus:Guddu Barrage,Sukkur Barrage,Kotri Barrage (also called Ghulam Muhammad barrage),Taunsa Barrage,Chashma Barrage andJinnah Barrage. Another new barrage called "Sindh Barrage" is planned as a terminal barrage on the Indus River.[78][79] There are some bridges on River Indus, such as Dadu Moro Bridge, Larkana Khairpur Indus River Bridge, Thatta-Sujawal bridge, Jhirk-Mula Katiar bridge and recently planned Kandhkot-Ghotki bridge.[80]
The entire left bank of Indus river in Sind province is protected from river flooding by constructing around 600 km longlevees. The right bank side is also leveed fromGuddu barrage toLake Manchar.[81] In response to the levees construction, the river has beenaggrading rapidly over the last 20 years leading to breaches upstream of barrages and inundation of large areas.[82]
Tarbela Dam in Pakistan is constructed on the Indus River, while the controversialKalabagh dam is also being constructed on Indus river. Pakistan is also buildingMunda Dam.
^For about 200 miles (320 km) it flows northwest, crossing the southeastern boundary of the disputed Kashmir region at about 15,000 feet (4,600 meters). A short way beyond Leh, in the Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh, it is joined on its left by its first major tributary, the Zanskar River. Continuing for 150 miles (240 km) in the same direction into the Pakistani-administered areas of the Kashmir region, the Indus is joined by its notable tributary the Shyok River on the right bank.[10]
^Number of Indus script inscribed objects and seals obtained from various Harappan sites: 1540 from Mohanjodaro, 985 from Harappa, 66 from Chanhudaro, 165 from Lothal, 99 from Kalibangan, 7 from Banawali, 6 from Ur in Iraq, 5 from Surkotada, 4 from Chandigarh
^Lodrick, Deryck; Ahmad, Nafis (12 November 2024).Indus River. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved25 November 2024.
^ab"Indus River". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved8 March 2025.For about 200 miles (320 km) it flows northwest, crossing the southeastern boundary of the disputed Kashmir region at about 15,000 feet (4,600 meters). A short way beyond Leh, in the Indian-administered union territory of Ladakh, it is joined on its left by its first major tributary, the Zanskar River. Continuing for 150 miles (240 km) in the same direction into the Pakistani-administered areas of the Kashmir region, the Indus is joined by its notable tributary the Shyok River on the right bank. Below its confluence with the Shyok, as far as the Kohistan region of Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, it is fed by mighty glaciers
^abc(a)Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent, Encyclopaedia Britannica,archived from the original on 13 August 2019, retrieved15 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, the last two being part of a territory called the Northern Areas. Administered by India are the southern and southeastern portions, which constitute the state of Jammu and Kashmir but are slated to be split into two union territories."; (b)Pletcher, Kenneth,Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia, Encyclopaedia Britannica,archived from the original on 2 April 2019, retrieved16 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: "Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, at the northernmost extent of the Indian subcontinent in south-central Asia. It constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India to be part of the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir state."; (c)"Kashmir",Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2006, p. 328,ISBN978-0-7172-0139-6,archived from the original on 17 January 2023, retrieved6 November 2019 C. E Bosworth, University of Manchester Quote: "KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947"; (d)Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003),Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M, Taylor & Francis, pp. 1191–,ISBN978-0-415-93922-5,archived from the original on 17 January 2023, retrieved12 June 2023 Quote: "Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China." (e)Talbot, Ian (2016),A History of Modern South Asia: Politics, States, Diasporas, Yale University Press, pp. 28–29,ISBN978-0-300-19694-8 Quote: "We move from a disputed international border to a dotted line on the map that represents a military border not recognized in international law. The line of control separates the Indian and Pakistani administered areas of the former Princely State of Jammu and Kashmir."; (f)Skutsch, Carl (2015) [2007], "China: Border War with India, 1962", in Ciment, James (ed.),Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II (2nd ed.), London and New York: Routledge, p. 573,ISBN978-0-7656-8005-1,The situation between the two nations was complicated by the 1957–1959 uprising by Tibetans against Chinese rule. Refugees poured across the Indian border, and the Indian public was outraged. Any compromise with China on the border issue became impossible. Similarly, China was offended that India had given political asylum to the Dalai Lama when he fled across the border in March 1959. In late 1959, there were shots fired between border patrols operating along both the ill-defined McMahon Line and in the Aksai Chin. (g)Fisher, Michael H. (2018),An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 166,ISBN978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Kashmir's identity remains hotly disputed with a UN-supervised "Line of Control" still separating Pakistani-held Azad ("Free") Kashmir from Indian-held Kashmir.";
^abLodrick, Deryck; Ahmad, Nafis (12 November 2024).Indus River. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved25 November 2024.Near Tatta the Indus branches into distributaries that form a delta and join the sea at various points south-southeast of Karachi. The delta covers an area of 3,000 square miles (7,800 square km) or more (and extends along the coast for about 130 miles (210 km). The uneven surface of the delta contains a network of existing and abandoned channels. The coastal strip, from about 5 to 20 miles (8 to 32 km) inland, is flooded by high tides. The Indus delta has elongated protruding distributaries and low sandy beaches.
^Richardson, Hugh E.; Wylie, Turrell V.; Falkenheim, Victor C.; Shakabpa, Tsepon W. D. (3 March 2020)."Tibet".Encyclopedia Britannica.Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved9 August 2021.historic region and autonomous region of China that is often called "the roof of the world." It occupies a vast area of plateaus and mountains in Central Asia
^"Indus River".Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved8 March 2025.
^"Kashmir: region, Indian subcontinent".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archived from the original on 13 August 2019. Retrieved16 July 2016. Quote: "Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent. It is bounded by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the east (both parts of China), by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab to the south, by Pakistan to the west, and by Afghanistan to the northwest. The northern and western portions are administered by Pakistan and comprise three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and Baltistan, ... The southern and southeastern portions constitute the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Indian- and Pakistani-administered portions are divided by a "line of control" agreed to in 1972, although neither country recognizes it as an international boundary. In addition, China became active in the eastern area of Kashmir in the 1950s and since 1962 has controlled the northeastern part of Ladakh (the easternmost portion of the region)."
^Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (2020) [1929]."सिन्धु sindhu".A practical Sanskrit dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved24 November 2024.m. f. [moving to a goal: √2. sidh] stream, river; Indus; m. flood (V.); ocean; region of the Indus, Sindh, people of Sindh
^Apte, Vaman Shivaram (2023) [1959]."सिन्धुः sindhuḥ".A practical Sanskrit dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan. Retrieved24 November 2024.1 The sea, ocean; 2 The Indus. 3 The country around the Indus.
^Imperial Gazetteer of India. Vol. 13. Oxford University Press. 1909. p. 357.Archived from the original on 17 August 2024. Retrieved21 September 2022.
^For example,The Indus River: biodiversity, resources, humankind. Karachi: Oxford University Press. 1999.ISBN0195779053. Papers in this edited collection generally use the shorter measurement, but at least two use the longer one.
^Henry Yule:India, IndiesArchived 28 June 2012 atarchive.today. InHobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903
^Clift P, Gaedicke C, Edwards R, Lee JI, Hildebrand P, Amjad S, White RS, Schlüter HU (2002). "The stratigraphic evolution of the Indus Fan and the history of sedimentation in the Arabian Sea".Marine Geophysical Researches.23 (3):223–245.Bibcode:2002MarGR..23..223C.doi:10.1023/A:1023627123093.S2CID129735252.
^Clift, Peter D.; Shimizu, N.; Layne, G.D.; Blusztajn, J.S.; Gaedicke, C.; Schlüter, H.-U.;Clark, M.K.; Amjad, S. (August 2001). "Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the Western Himalaya and Karakoram".GSA Bulletin.113 (8):1039–1051.Bibcode:2001GSAB..113.1039C.doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1039:DOTIFA>2.0.CO;2.
^"Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers – 30.11.2017".DW.COM.Archived from the original on 22 August 2018. Retrieved22 August 2018.about 90 per cent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order).
Albinia, Alice. (2008)Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River. First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York.ISBN978-0-393-33860-7.
Alexander Burnes,A voyage on the Indus, London, 1973
Philippe Fabry,Wandering with the Indus, with Yusuf Shahid (text) Lahore, 1995
Jean Fairley,The Lion River: The Indus, London, 1975
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