Ahouseplant, also known as apot plant,potted plant, orindoor plant, is anornamental plant cultivated indoors.[1] for aesthetic or practical purposes. These plants are commonly found inhomes,offices, and various indoor spaces, where they contribute to the ambiance by adding natural beauty and improving air quality. Most houseplants are tropical or semi-tropical species, as they thrive in the warm, humid conditions often found indoors. Many of them areepiphytes(plants that grow on other plants),succulents (which store water in their leaves), orcacti,[2] which are particularly well-suited to indoor environments due to their low maintenance requirements. Whether used to brighten up a space, improve air circulation, or create a calming atmosphere, houseplants play an important role in enhancing the indoor environment.
Houseplants have care requirements that differ from plants grown outdoors. Moisture, light,[3]soil mixture, temperature, ventilation,humidity,fertilizers, andpotting are all important factors. Each plant species has different care requirements, and care requirements can vary based on the specific pot, location in a particular home and potting mix used. However, all potted plants should have drainage holes to prevent root rot. One way to ensure drainage without a saucer below the pot to catch drippings is by using a "cache pot", which is essentially a larger pot intended to catch excess water, with an interior pot, often made of plastic, as the inner sleeve holding the soil.[4]
Most houseplants are species that have adapted to survive in a temperature range between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F) year-round, as those adapted for temperate environments require winter temperatures outside of normal indoor conditions.[5] Within that limitation, there are houseplants which are native to many different types of habitats, fromtropical rainforests to succulents and cacti native to deserts. Many houseplants are eitherepiphytes or live in seasonally dry ecosystems that help them adapt to the dry indoor air and inconsistent watering many houseplants are subject to. Often, houseplants from tropical areas are understory plants, and because they grown in shady conditions naturally, they are often able to thrive in lower-light conditions.
Selected houseplants are typically of healthy origin, with tidy leaves and upright stems. Houseplants which survive in conditions similar to a homeowner's living space will have a higher probability of survival. Tropical houseplants which grow under high thresholds of heat, for instance, will grow sun leaves which contain fewer chloroplasts. Plants which grow in the shade will grow shade leaves, containing more chloroplasts. Horticulturists at Texas A&M University recommend acclimatization, a gradual process in which plants with too much or too little light or heat exposure are balanced accordingly to prevent overexposure. The brightness and strength of the light source under which a plant lives, including how long it spends under that light source, is vital to its survival. Other factors, like humidity and ventilation, must be kept under regular levels to prevent plant failure and susceptibility to disease.[6]
Houseplants are typically grown in specialized soilless mixtures called potting compost (in the UK), potting mix, orpotting soil.[7] Most potting mixes contain a combination ofpeat orcoir andvermiculite orperlite.
Keeping plants consistently too wet ("overwatering") leads to the roots sitting in water, which often leads toroot rot. Root rot is the most common cause of death for houseplants but keeping houseplants too dry ("under-watering") can also be detrimental.
Plants requirenitrate,phosphate, andpotassium to survive, as well as micronutrients includingboron,zinc,manganese,iron,copper,molybdenum, andchlorine. Houseplants do not have access to these nutrients unless they arefertilized regularly.[8]
House plants are generally planted in pots that havedrainage holes, to reduce the likelihood of over-watering and standing water. Pots are typically broken down into two groups:porous and non-porous. Porous pots (usuallyterracotta) provide better aeration as air passes laterally through the sides of the pot. Non-porous pots such as glazed or plastic pots tend to hold moisture longer and restrictairflow.
Houseplants experience a range of pests.Fungus gnats,spider mites,mealybugs,thrips andscale are common pests.
With the right care, succulents avoid pests and diseases and achieve optimal growth. By picking the right succulent and taking care of its soil and watering needs, the houseplant lives long to serve its purpose.[9]
Houseplants positively influence the indoor environment by improving themicrobiome, increasing beneficialbacteria, and reducing harmfulfungi,[10] which can enhanceair quality and health. They also boost humidity levels throughtranspiration, helping to prevent dryness in the air and discomfort to the skin and respiratory system. Plants regulate temperature by providingnatural cooling and reduce noise by absorbing sound,[11] creating a more comfortable and peaceful indoor atmosphere. These benefits make houseplants valuable for bothphysical well being and overall indoorcomfort.
Houseplants are also grown in a variety of media other than potting mix, often in ahydroponic or semi-hydroponic system. This may overlap withaquascaping. Materials like sand, gravel, brick,expanded clay aggregate and styrofoam may be employed.[citation needed]
Some epiphytic plants may be grown mounted, either with their roots in potting mix and their stems attached to supports, or with their roots wrapped in sphagnum moss and attached to a vertical surface with wire. This can also overlap with the practice ofkokedama.
The history of houseplants is intertwined with the history of container gardening in general.Ancient Egyptians grew ornamental (flowers) and fruiting plants in decorative containers, where blue and whitelotus floral arrangements gave rise to more luxuriant bouquets during theNew Kingdom.[12] EgyptianQueen Hatshepsut grewfrankincense in her temple in 1478 BC.Ancient Greeks and theRomans cultivated laurel trees (Laurus nobilis) inearthenware vessels.[13]Roman villas were perfumed with the blossom ofcitrus trees. Inancient China, potted plants were shown at garden exhibitions over 2,500 years ago, and they were seen as a symbol of wealth.[14] In around 600 BC,King Nebuchadnezzar constructed abotanical garden for his wife,Queen Amytis, filling them with fragrant flowers.[15]
In the medieval era,gillyflowers were displayed in containers.[16]
During theRenaissance (15th–16th centuries), plant collectors and affluent merchants fromItaly, theNetherlands andBelgium imported plants fromAsia Minor and theEast Indies.Creeping groundsel was introduced inMalta and the rest of Europe in the 15th century as an ornamental plant.[17]
In the 17th century, fascination in exotic plants grew among the aristocracy of France and England. Inventor and writerSir Hugh Platt publishedGarden of Eden in 1660, a book which directed indoor plant growing methods.[18] Wealthy British households purchased imported fruit trees, especiallycitrus trees, to grow in specializedorangeries.[19]: 21–31 Less wealthy people would also grow plants, especially flowers, indoors.[19]: 26 Orange trees became less fashionable as international commerce in oranges became more widespread.[19]: 31 Succulents, such as aloes, were also cultivated.[19]: 34
In the early 18th century, windows in London became wider and brighter, expanding the opportunities for the lower classes to grow plants indoors.[19]: 32–33
The expansion of Europeancolonialism brought Europeans into contact with a wide variety of new plants, especially tropical plants more suited to growing as houseplants. Explorers and botanists brought over 5,000 species toEurope fromSouth America,Africa,Asia andAustralia.[18]
Forcing plants to bloom out of season, especially bulbs, grew in popularity during the 18th century.[19]: 48 The decorative pot orcachepot specifically for growing houseplants (as opposed to a simpleterracotta pot, or a decorative vase) was developed in this era as ceramic manufacturing took off.[20]
Plant breeding developed in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These innovations were drawn and presented in thebotanical gardens and in private court collections. At the end of the 18th century, flower tables became part of the salons. Furthermore, nurseries were flourishing in the 18th century, which stocked thousands of plants, includingcitrus,jasmines,mignonette,bays,myrtles,agaves andaloes.[20]
TheVictorian era saw the first use of houseplants by themiddle class, which were perceived as a symbol ofsocial status and moral value.[21] Some foliage plants which tolerated the typical gloomy and snug environment inside aVictorian house became popular.[22] The quintessential Victorian plants were palms (such askentia palms andparlour palms), thecast iron plant, and ferns. Ferns were grown inWardian cases, an early type ofterrarium.Geraniums were often placed on window ledges and indrawing rooms and were the most affordable houseplant for the average Briton.[20][23]
In 1818,orchids were introduced to Europe when they were used as packing material for the shipment of other rare plants.[20]German ivy was introduced in the United States sometime in the 19th century as a houseplant.[24][25]
Other typical Victorian houseplants included mop-head chrysanthemums and yuccas.[23]
At the end of the 19th century, the range already includedbegonias,cineraria,clivia,cyclamen andflamingo flowers, but also leafy ornamental plants such assilver fir, ornamentalasparagus,lilium,snake plant, andrubber tree.[18]
In the early 20th century, there was a turn against houseplants as they were seen as dated relics of the cluttered Victorian era. When there were houseplants, the more architecturally shaped cacti and succulents were the most common.[23] In the 1920s, commercial houseplant production began in California, focused on theKentia palm and thepothos, later expanding to includePhilodendron andAraucaria species in the 1940s.[18]
DuringWorld War II, houseplants became more common in offices, which began to more closely resemble the domestic environment as more women entered the workforce.[26]
By 1960, Florida produced more than 55% of American houseplants, and has since remained the main producer of houseplants for the American market.[18] Philodendrons, rubber plants and geraniums were mainstays of the postwar era.[27] Many plants entered the United States and the United Kingdom through the influence ofScandinavian design, which featured plants.[23] Tropical plants likebromeliads,birds of paradise, and philodendrons were popular accents intiki-themed spaces.[26] The postwar years also saw a broader commercialization of houseplants. In the 1960s, plant care labels were introduced, andgarden centers became ubiquitous in the 1970s.[27][28]
A lush display of houseplants fit into theenvironmentalist andhippie movements in the 1970s; a large indoor garden is characteristic of 1970s design.[29][30] Leafy plants were popular, particularly ferns andspider plants, often inmacramé hanging planters.[26]Monstera deliciosa, ferns, aloes andsnake plants (Dracaena species, usually sold under their former genus ofSanseveria) were also popular.[31]Terrariums andbottle gardens began to appear as well.
In the 1980s, houseplants were often limited to large, lush statement pieces, particularly in bathrooms. The rise ofshopping malls with large skylights created a new place for plants to be grown.[26] In the 1990s,moth orchids became trendy.[32] The 1990s also brought a wave of interest inartificial plants.[33]
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Beginning in the mid-to-late 2010s, fashionable plants from earlier decades were revitalized and popularized bysocial media, especiallyInstagram, with "plantstagram" becoming a major driver of trendy plants. In 2015, 5 million Americans took up plant-related hobbies.[35] In 2017, 30% of American households purchased at least one houseplant.[36]
Interest in houseplants exploded during theCOVID-19 pandemic that began in early 2020.[37] With people forced to spend more time indoors, many sought to fill their homes with houseplants. Plants were mentioned on Instagram an average of more than 3,000 times a day in July 2021 and the hashtag "#plantmom" had been used more than 2.6 million times.[37] Plant sales in 2020 were at an all-time high, which brought concerns about the environmental impact of the industry.[38]
Some of the most popular plants in the 2020s are theMonstera deliciosa and otheraroids,[39] as well as thefiddle-leaf fig. This has also seen a larger interest in growing plants with interesting or attractive forms or foliage, rather than focusing solely on flowers.[39]
Houseplants are obtained either by collecting wild specimens of plants or bycultivating them in controlled environments such asgreenhouses and commercialnurseries. While wild collection remains a source of some houseplants, it poses a significant threat too many species, particularly those with limited native ranges. Plants likecacti,succulents, andcarnivorous species, especiallyVenus flytraps,[40][41] are particularly vulnerable toover harvesting. This practice can destabilize natural ecosystems and reduce biodiversity, leading to conservation concerns.
Most plants grown for the houseplant trade arecultivated innurseries, where they are raised in optimal conditions designed to promote healthy growth. These plants are oftenpropagated through various methods, including traditionalseedplanting,cutting propagation, and, increasingly,tissue culture techniques. Tissue culture, which involves growing plants from small tissue samples in a sterile environment, allows for rapid production of disease-free plants and is especially useful for plants that are difficult to propagate by other means.
Transplanting is an essential part of the growing process for many houseplants. As plants grow, they often outgrow their original containers and need to be transferred to larger pots to accommodate theirroot systems. this process is crucial for maintaining healthy growth and ensuring that plants have sufficient space to develop robust root structures. when transplanting, care must be taken to avoid damaging the plant's roots and to ensure that the new pot has proper drainage. The timing of transplanting also plays a key roles in a plant's overall health, usually, it's done during the plant's active growing season to minimize stress.
For tropical plants, which make up a significant portion of the houseplant market, specialized care is needed to mimic their antic environments.Tropical vegetation thrives in warm,humid conditions and requires careful attention to temperature, light, and moisture levels. some of the most popular tropical houseplants include varieties likemonstera,philodendron, and various species of ferns. These plants are often propagated through cuttings or by dividing clumps of roots when transplanting, ensuring that the new plants have established root systems.
In terms of commercial production, theUnited States remains one of the largest producers of houseplants, with a significant portion coming fromFlorida,[42] known for its ideal climate for growing tropical plants. Similarly, the Netherlands plays a pivotal role in the European houseplant market,[43] producing approximately 1 billion houseplants annually to meet the growing demand.
As the houseplant industry grows, sustainable practices in both plant production and sourcing have become more important, especially with the increasing popularity of rare and exotic tropical plants. By adoptingenvironmentally responsible techniques, such as ethical propagation and avoiding wild collection, nurseries and growers can help ensure that houseplants continue to be available without further jeopardizing their natural habitats.
Although houseplants are commonly considered to have an active, positive effect onindoor air quality, much of the non-academic reporting on the subject is based on experiments involving the removal ofvolatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the air, the evidence for which is unclear.[44]
The 1989NASA Clean Air Study was set up to research ways to clean the air in sealed environments such as space stations.[45] This included an early study on the ability of potted plants to remove VOCs, which concluded that plants, specifically a combination of their roots and the soil microorganisms, were highly effective.[44][46][47] However, this study tested plants in ways which are not representative of an indoor environment; in sealed chambers and with highly elevated levels of the VOCsbenzene,trichloroethylene andformaldehyde.[46] Subsequent studies have confirmed the combined role of soil and roots[48][49] and showed that they were effective at cleaning in higher VOC concentrations, but only at lower concentrations after the process had been "kick-started" by a higher level of exposure.[47] Others have shown that is possible to artificially enrich the soil directly with VOC-degrading bacteria and achieve the same result, and posited that exposure to high VOC levels (or low levels but in bursts) during experiments and the subsequent increase in such bacteria may have been a cause of the large differences seen in the results of various studies.[49] A 2019 review paper calculated that it would require between 10 and 1000 houseplants per square meter to achieve the same level of VOC removal as occurs from passive exchange between indoor and outdoor air.[44]
Houseplants do have a statistically significant effect on the concentrations of bothcarbon monoxide andcarbon dioxide in normal indoor environments, reducing carbon dioxide levels by 10–25% and carbon monoxide levels by up to 90%.[50]
There are also many claimed psychological and physiological benefits to having houseplants. A 2022 systematic review with some meta-analyses included 42 studies which together measured the following human functions to study the benefits of indoor plants:
Physiology:
Cognition:
Behavior:
Health:
Most but not all studies found a positive effect of plants. Each of the above functions was found to be influenced positively by the majority of the studies which measured it. The authors only had enough good-quality comparable data to synthesize six areas, from which they confirmed astatistically significant improvement only in diastolic blood pressure and academic performance.[52]
A critical review of the experimental literature concluded in 2009:
The reviewed studies[53][54] suggest that indoor plants can provide psychological benefits such as stress-reduction and increased pain tolerance. However, they also showed substantial heterogeneity in methods and results. We therefore have strong reservations about general claims that indoor plants cause beneficial psychological changes. It appears that benefits are contingent on features of the context in which the indoor plants are encountered and on characteristics of the people encountering them.[55]
Houseplants can offer minor recovery from stress when instituted as part of an environment. The presence of a houseplant in an office setting can also increase productivity. A 2004 controlled study discovered that houseplants could improve mental focus, stabilize mood, and raise psychological motivation when present in otherwise unadorned environments.[56]
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Many forced bulbs are alsotemperate.
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