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The region now known as Guinea-Bissau, inWest Africa, has been inhabited by humans for thousands of years. During the 13th century CE, it was a province of theMali Empire which later became independent as the empire ofKaabu. ThePortuguese Empire claimed the region during the 1450s, but its control was limited to several forts along the coast during most of this period; it gained control of the mainland after a series of "pacification campaigns" from 1912 to 1915, which used military forces to violently crush local resistance. The offshoreBijagos Islands were not colonized until 1936.[1][2] Guinea-Bissau gainedindependence from Portugal in 1974. The introduction of multi-party politics in 1991 led to the first multi-party elections in 1994. Acivil war broke out in 1998, which lasted until the following year.
Although the region's history has not yet been extensively documented with archaeological records, it had a population ofhunter-gatherers by 1000 CE. Agriculturists using iron tools soon followed.[3]
The oldest inhabitants were theJola,Papel,Manjak,Balanta, andBiafada peoples. TheMandinka andFulani later migrated into the region, pushing the earlier inhabitants towards the coast.[3][4]: 20 A small number of Mandinka had been present in the region as early as the 11th century,[5]: 6 but they migrateden masse in the 13th century asSenegambia was incorporated into theMali Empire byKaabu founderTiramakhan Traore.[6] A process of "Mandinkization" followed.[5]: 6 The Fulani arrived as early as the 12th century as semi-nomadic herders, but were not a large presence until the 15th century.[3]
The Balanta and Jola had weak (or non-existent) institutions of kingship, with an emphasis on heads of villages and families.[4]: 64 The Mandinka, Fula, Papel, Manjak, and Biafada chiefs werevassals of kings with a variety of customs, rites, and ceremonies. Nobles commanded all major positions, however, which included the judicial system.[4]: 66, 67, 73, 227 Social stratification was apparent in clothing and accessories, housing materials, and transportation options.[4]: 77–8
Commerce was widespread among the ethnic groups. Items traded included pepper andkola nuts from the southern forests, iron from thesavannah-forest zone, salt and dried fish from the coast, and Mandinka cotton cloth.[7]: 4 Products were commonly sold at markets and fairs, held every seven or eight days and sometimes attended by several thousand buyers and sellers from up to 60 miles (97 kilometres) away. Weapons were prohibited in the marketplace, and soldiers were positioned around the area to maintain order throughout the day. Market sections were allocated for specific products except for wine, which could be sold anywhere.[4]: 69–70
Kaabu, established in the 13th century, was a province ofMali through the conquest ofSenegambia byTiramakhan Traore (a general of Mali Empire founderSundiata Keita.[8] According to oral tradition, Tiramakhan Traore invaded the region to punish theWolof king for insulting Sundiata and went south of theGambia River into theCasamance.[9] This began a migration ofMandinka into the region. By the 14th century, much of Guinea-Bissau was administered by Mali and ruled by afarim kaabu (commander of Kaabu).[10]
The Empire of Mali began to decline during the 14th century. Formerly-secure possessions in present-daySenegal,the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau were cut off by the expanding power ofKoli Tenguella in the early 16th century.[11] Kaabu became an independent federation of kingdoms, the era's most powerful western Mandinka state.[5]: 13 [12]
Kaabu's ruling classes were composed of elitewarriors known as theNyancho, who traced their patrilineal lineage to Tiramakhan Traore.[6]: 2 The Nyancho were reportedly good cavalrymen and raiders.[5]: 6 The KaabuMansaba was seated in Kansala (present-dayGabu) in the easternGebú region.[7]: 4 Malian imperial history was central to Kaabu culture, maintaining its significant institutions and thelingua franca of Mandinka.[5]: 11 Individuals from other ethnic backgrounds were assimilated into this dominant culture, and frequent inter-ethnic marriages assisted the process.[5]: 12
The slave trade dominated the economy, enriching the warrior classes with imported cloth, beads, metalware, and firearms.[5]: 8 Trade networks to North Africa were dominant until the 14th century, with coastal trade with the Europeans beginning to increase during the 15th century.[7]: 3 An estimated 700 enslaved people left the region annually in the 17th and 18th centuries, many from Kaabu.[7]: 5
In the late 18th century, the rise of theImamate of Futa Jallon in the east was a powerful challenge to theanimist Kaabu. During the first half of the 19th century, civil war erupted as localFula people sought independence.[7]: 5–6 This long-running conflict led to the 1867Battle of Kansala. A Fula army led byAlpha Molo Balde [fr] laid siege to the earthen walls of Kansala for 11 days. The Mandinka kept the Fulani from climbing the walls for a time, but were eventually overwhelmed.[13]: 14 TheMansaba Dianke Walli, sensing defeat, ordered his troops to set the city's gunpowder on fire; this killed the Mandinka defenders and most of the invading army.[14] Although the loss of Kansala marked the end of the Kaabu empire and the rise of theFuladu kingdom, smaller Mandinka kingdoms survived until they were absorbed by the Portuguese.
TheBiafada people inhabited the area around theRio Grande de Buba in three kingdoms: Biguba,Guinala, and Bissege.[4]: 65 The former two were important ports with significantlançado communities,[15] subjects of the Mandinkamansa of Kaabu.[16]
According to oral tradition, the kingdom ofBissau was founded by the son of the king of Quinara (Guinala), who moved to the region with his pregnant sister, his six wives, and the subjects of his father's kingdom.[17] Relations between the kingdom and the Portuguese were initially warm, but deteriorated over time.[18]
The kingdom defended its sovereignty against the Portuguese "pacification campaigns," defeating them in 1891, 1894, and 1904. The Portuguese, under commanded byTeixeira Pinto and warlordAbdul Injai, absorbed Bissau in 1915.[19]
TheBijagos Islands were inhabited by people with different ethnic origins, leading to cultural diversity in the archipelago.[4]: 24 [20] Bijago society was warlike. Men were dedicated to building boats and raiding the mainland, attacking the coastal peoples and other islands. Women cultivated land, constructed houses, and gathered food. They could choose their husbands, generally warriors with the best reputation. Successful warriors could have many wives and boats, and were entitled to one-third of a boat'sspoils from any expedition.[4]: 204–205
Bijago night raids on coastal settlements had a significant impact. Portuguese traders on the mainland tried to stop the raids because they hurt the local economy. The islanders sold a considerable number of slaves to the Europeans, however, who frequently pushed for more captives.[4]: 205 The Bijagos, out of the reach of mainland slave traders, were largely safe from enslavement. Portuguese sources say that the children made good slaves but not the adults, who were likely to commit suicide, lead rebellions on slave ships, or escape when they reached theNew World.[4]: 218–219
The first Europeans to reach Guinea-Bissau were the Venetian explorerAlvise Cadamosto in 1455, Portuguese explorerDiogo Gomes in 1456, Portuguese explorerDuarte Pacheco Pareira in the 1480s, and Flemish explorerEustache de la Fosse in 1479–1480.[21]: 7, 12, 13, 16 The region was known to the Portuguese as the Guinea of Cape Verde, andSantiago was the administrative capital and the source of most of its white settlers.[4]
Although Portuguese authorities initially discouraged European settlement on the mainland, the prohibition was ignored bylançados andtangomãos who assimilated its indigenous culture and customs.[4]: 140 They were mainly from impoverished backgrounds, traders fromCape Verde or people exiled from Portugal, often ofJewish orNew Christian background.[4]: 148–150 They ignored Portuguese trade regulations which banned entering the region or trading without a royal licence, shipping from unauthorized ports, or assimilating into the native community.[4]: 142 In 1520, measures against thelançados were eased in 1520; trade and settlements increased on the mainland, which was populated by Portuguese and native traders and Spanish,Genoese, English, French, and Dutch.[4]: 145, 150
With the region's rivers having no natural harbors, thelançados and native traders navigated river-ways and creeks in small boats purchased from European ships or manufactured locally by trainedgrumetes (native African sailors, enslaved and free). The main ports wereCacheu,Bissau, andGuinala; each river had trading centers such asToubaboudougou at their furthest navigable point, which traded with the interior for resources such asgum arabic,ivory, hides,civet, dyes, slaves, and gold.[4]: 153–160 A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along the rivers. Local African rulers generally refused to allow Europeans into the interior, to ensure their control of trade routes.[22]
Europeans were not accepted in all communities, with theJolas,Balantas, and Bijagos initially hostile. The region's other groups harboured communities oflançados who were subject to taxation and the laws and customs of their community, including the local courts.[4]: 164–5 Disputes became increasingly frequent and serious during the late 1500s as foreign traders tried to influence the host societies to their benefit. Under pressure from hostile locals, the Portuguese abandoned the settlement of Buguendo near Cacheu in 1580 and Guinala in 1583 (where they retreated to a fort). In 1590 they built a fort at Cacheu, which the local Manjaks unsuccessfully stormed shortly after its construction.[23] The poorly-manned and provisioned forts were unable to free thelançados from their responsibilities to the native monarchs (their hosts), who could not expel the traders because their goods were in great demand by the upper class.[4]: 180–184
The Portuguese monopoly was being increasingly challenged. The 1580Iberian Union unified the crowns of Portugal andSpain, leading to the attack of Portuguese possessions in Guinea Bissau and Cape Verde by Spain's enemies. French, Dutch, and English ships increasingly traded with the natives and the independent-mindedlançados.[4]: 244–53
During the early 17th century, the government unsuccessfully tried to force all Guinean trade to go throughSantiago and promote trade and settlement on the mainland while restricting weapons sales to the locals.[4]: 243–4 With the end of the Iberian Union in 1640, KingJoão IV attempted to restrict the Spanish trade in Guinea which had flourished for the previous 60 years. The Afro-Portuguese in Bissau,Guinala,Geba, andCacheu swore allegiance to the Portuguese king, but were not in a position to deny the free trade that the African kings (who now saw European products as necessities) demanded. In Cacheu, famine had wiped out the slave troops in charge of defending the fort, the water supply remained in Manjak hands and thelançados, their Africanized descendants and the locals were losing customers; Captain-Major Luis de Magalhães lifted the embargo.[4]: 261–3
In 1641, theConselho Ultramarino [pt] replaced de Magalhães with Gonçalo de Gamboa de Ayala. He had some success winning over local leaders and stopping Spanish ships at Cacheu. In Bissau, however, two Spanish ships were protected by the King of Bissau. Ayala threatened violent repercussions and resettled Geba's Afro-European community toFarim, northeast of Cacheu.[4]: 266–71 The Portuguese could not impose their monopolistic vision on the local and Afro-European traders, since the economic interests of the native leaders and Afro-European merchants never fully aligned with theirs. During this period, the power of theMali Empire in the region was dissipating and thefarim ofKaabu, the king ofKassa and other local rulers began to assert their independence.[4]: 488
In the early 1700s, the Portuguese abandonedBissau and retreated to Cacheu after the captain-major was captured and killed by the local king. They did not return until the 1750s, and theCacheu and Cape Verde Company shut down in 1706.[24] For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a foothold onBolama.[25]
Guinea-Bissau was among the first regions touched by theAtlantic slave trade and, while it did not produce the same number of enslaved people as other regions, the impact was still significant.[26][22] They were primarily sent toCape Verde and theIberian Peninsula at first, with theMadeira and theCanary Islands seeing smaller influxes.[4]: 186–7 Enslaved people were instrumental in developing theplantation economy (particularly in Cape Verde), growingindigo andcotton and weavingpanos cloth which became a standard West African currency.[3]
Many slaves from Guinea-Bissau were destined for theSpanish West Indies from 1580 to 1640, with an average of 3,000 per year fromGuinala alone.[4]: 278 The 17th and 18th centuries saw thousands of people taken from the region every year by Portuguese, French, and British companies. TheFula jihads and wars between theImamate of Futa Jallon andKaabu provided many of them.[27]
People were enslaved in four primary ways: as punishment for law-breaking, selling themselves (or relatives) during famines, kidnapped by native marauders or European raiders, or as prisoners of war. Most slaves were bought by Europeans from local rulers or traders.[4]: 198–200 Every ethnicity in the region except for the Balantas and Jolas participated in the trade.[4]: 208, 217 Most wars were waged to capture slaves for sale to the Europeans in exchange for imported goods, resembling man-hunts more than conflicts over territory or political power.[4]: 204, 209 The nobles and kings benefited, and the common people bore the brunt of the raiding and insecurity. If a noble was captured, they were likely to be released; the captors would generally accept a ransom in exchange.[4]: 229 The relationship between kings and European traders was a partnership, with the two making deals about how the trade would be conducted, who would be enslaved, and the prices of slaves. Contemporary chroniclers Fernão Guerreiro and Mateo de Anguiano questioned a number of kings on their part in the slave trade, noting that they recognized the trade as evil but participated because the Europeans would not buy other goods from them.[4]: 230–4
During the late 18th century, European countries gradually began slowing or abolishing the slave trade. TheBritish navy and, to a half-hearted extent, theU.S. Navy attempted to intercept slavers off the coast of Guinea in the first half of the 19th century. The restriction of supply only increased prices and intensified illegal slave-trading activity. Portugal abandoned slavery in 1869 andBrazil in 1888, replacing it with a system ofcontract labor which was only marginally better for the workers.[27]
Until the late 1800s, Portuguese control of their colony outside the forts and trading posts was illusory. African rulers held power in the countryside, and frequent attacks on, and assassinations of, the Portuguese marked the middle decades of the century.[28] Guinea-Bissau began experiencing increased European colonial competition during the 1860s. The dispute over the status ofBolama was resolved in Portugal's favor with mediation by U.S. PresidentUlysses S. Grant in 1870, but French encroachment on Portuguese claims continued. In 1886, theCasamance region of present-daySenegal was ceded to France.[3]\
Attempting to shore up domestic finances and strengthen the grip on the colony, Minister of Marine and ColoniesAntónio José Enes reformed tax laws and grantedconcessions in Guinea (mainly to foreign companies) to increase exports in 1891.[29] The modest increase in government income, however, did not defray the cost of troops used to collect the taxes. Resistance continued throughout the area, but the reforms laid the groundwork for future military expansion.[30][31]
To meet theCongress of Berlin standard for "effective occupation", the Portuguese colonial government began a series of largely-unsuccessful "pacification campaigns" until the arrival of CaptainJoão Teixeira Pinto in 1912. Supported by a largemercenary army commanded bySenegalese fugitiveAbdul Injai, he quickly and brutally crushed local resistance on the mainland. Three more bloody campaigns in 1917, 1925, and 1936 were required to "pacify" theBissagos Islands.[28]Portuguese Guinea remained a neglected backwater, with administrative expenses exceeding revenue.[32] In 1951, responding to anti-colonial criticism in theUnited Nations, the Portuguese government rebranded their colonies (includingPortuguese Guinea) as overseas provinces (Províncias Ultramarines).[33]
TheAfrican Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) was founded in 1956 and led byAmílcar Cabral. Initially committed to peaceful methods, the 1959Pidjiguiti massacre pushed the party towards more militarism and relied on the political mobilization of the peasantry. After years of planning and preparing from their base inConakry, the PAIGC began theGuinea-Bissau War of Independence on 23 January 1963.[34]
Unlike guerrilla movements in otherPortuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended control of large areas. Aided by the jungle terrain, it had easy access to borders with neighbouring allies and large quantities of arms fromCuba,China, theSoviet Union, and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians.[35] The PAIGC developed significant anti-aircraft capability to defend against aerial attack. It controlled many parts of Guinea by 1973, although the movement experienced a setback in January of that year when Cabral was assassinated.[36]
After Cabral's death the party was led byAristides Pereira, who later became the first president of the Republic ofCape Verde. The PAIGC National Assembly met atBoe, in the southeast, and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on 24 September 1973. This was recognized by a 93–7 UN General Assembly vote in November.[37]
After the April 1974Carnation Revolution, Portugal granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on 10 September 1974.Luís Cabral, Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became president. The United States recognized Guinea-Bissau's independence that day.[38] In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a coup led by prime minister and former armed-forces commanderJoão Bernardo Vieira.[39][40]
In 1994, 20 years after independence, Guinea-Bissau's firstmultiparty legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising which triggered theGuinea-Bissau Civil War in 1998 displaced hundreds of thousands of people, and the president was ousted by a military junta on 7 May 1999. An interim government turned over power in February 2000, when opposition leaderKumba Ialá took office after two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's return to democracy has been complicated by aneconomy devastated by civil war and military interference in government.[41]
In January 2000, the second round of the1999–2000 Guinea-Bissau general election took place. The presidential election resulted in victory for opposition leaderKumba Ialá of theParty for Social Renewal (PRS), who defeatedMalam Bacai Sanhá of the ruling PAIGC. The PRS were also victorious in theNational People's Assembly election, winning 38 of 102 seats.
In September 2003, amilitary coup led byArmed Forces Chief of StaffVerissimo Correia Seabra took place. Sitting president Kumba Ialá and Prime MinisterMário Pires were placed underhouse arrest.[42] After several delays, alegislative election was held in March 2004. Amutiny of military factions in October of that year resulted in Seabra's death, causing widespread unrest.[43]
The2005 Guinea-Bissau presidential election was held in June for the first time since the 2003 coup. Deposed President Ialá returned as the PRS candidate, saying that he was the country's legitimate president. The election was won by former presidentJoão Bernardo Vieira, who was deposed in the 1999 coup and defeatedMalam Bacai Sanhá in a run-off election. Sanhá initially refused to concede, saying thatelectoral fraud occurred in twoconstituencies (including the capital, Bissau).[44] Despite reports of arms entering the country before the election and "disturbances during campaigning", including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreignelection monitors described the overall election as "calm and organized".[45]
The PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority (67 of 100 seats) in the November 2008parliamentary election.[46] President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard; Vieira was unharmed.[47]
Vieira was assassinated on 2 March 2009 by (according to preliminary reports) a group of soldiers avenging the death of joint chiefs of staff headBatista Tagme Na Wai, who had been killed in an explosion the day before.[48] Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but theadvocacy groupSwisspeace noted signs of turmoil in the country.[49] Military leaders in Guinea-Bissau pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession. National Assembly SpeakerRaimundo Pereira was appointed interim president until the nationwideelection on 28 June 2009.[50] It was won byMalam Bacai Sanhá of the PAIGC over PRS candidateKumba Ialá.[51]
On 9 January 2012, President Sanhá died of complications of diabetes and Pereira was again appointed interim president. On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged acoup d'état and arrested Pereira and a leading presidential candidate.[52] Former vice chief of staffMamadu Ture Kuruma took control of the country and began negotiations with opposition political parties.[53][54]
José Mário Vaz was president of Guinea-Bissau from 2014 to the2019 presidential election. At the end of his term, Vaz was the first elected president to complete his five-year mandate. He lost the 2019 election toUmaro Sissoco Embaló, who took office in February 2020. Embaló is the first president elected without PAIGC support.[55][56]
A February 2022coup attempt against Embaló failed. According to the president, the attempted coup was linked to drug trafficking.[57] Anothercoup attempt in 2023 resulted in clashes between government forces and the National Guard.[58] Embaló announced on 11 September 2024 that he would not seek a second term in the presidential election scheduled for November 2025.[59] On 3 March 2025, President Umaro Sissoco Embalo said that he would run for a second term in November, contrary to his earlier vows to step down.[60]
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