Ahighwayman was arobber who stole from travellers. This type ofthief usually travelled and robbed byhorse as compared to afootpad who travelled and robbed on foot; mounted highwaymen were widely considered to be socially superior to footpads.[1] Suchcriminals operated until the mid- or late 19th century.Highwaywomen, such asKatherine Ferrers, were said to also exist, often dressing as men, especially in fiction.[citation needed]
The first attestation of the wordhighwayman is from 1617.[2]Euphemisms such as "knights of the road" and "gentlemen of the road" were sometimes used by people interested in romanticizing (with aRobin Hood–esque slant) what was often an especially violent form of stealing. In the 19th-century American West, highwaymen were sometimes known asroad agents.[3] In Australia, they were known asbushrangers.
The great age of highwaymen was the period from theRestoration in 1660 to the death ofQueen Anne in 1714. Some are known to have been disbanded soldiers, and even officers, of theEnglish Civil War and French wars. What favoured them most was the lack of governance and absence of a police force: parish constables were almost entirely ineffective, while detection and arrest were very difficult. Most of the highwaymen held up travellers and took their money. Some had channels by which they could dispose of bills of exchange. Others had a 'racket' on the road transport of an extensive district; carriers regularly paid them a ransom to go unmolested.[4]
They often attackedcoaches for their lack of protection, including publicstagecoaches; thepostboys who carried the mail were also frequently held up.[5] The demand to "Stand and deliver!" (sometimes in forms such as "Stand and deliver your purse!" "Stand and deliver your money!") was in use from the 17th century to the 19th century:
A fellow of a good Name, but poor Condition, and worse Quality, was Convicted for laying anEmbargo on a man whom he met on the Road, by bidding him Stand and Deliver, but to little purpose; for the Traveller had no more Money than aCapuchin, but told him, all the treasure he had was a pound of Tobacco, which he civilly surrendered.
— The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 25 April 1677,[6]
The phrase "Your money or your life!" is mentioned in trial reports from the mid-18th century:
Evidence of John Mawson: "As I was coming home, in company with Mr. Andrews, within two fields of the new road that is by thegate-house ofLord Baltimore, we were met by two men; they attacked us both: the man who attacked me I have never seen since. He clapped abayonet to my breast, and said, with an oath, Your money, or your life! He had on a soldier'swaistcoat andbreeches. I put the bayonet aside, and gave him my silver, about three or fourshillings."
— The Proceedings of the Old Bailey, 12 September 1781,[7]
Victims of highwaymen included the Prime MinisterLord North, who wrote in 1774: "I was robbed last night as I expected, our loss was not great, but as thepostilion did not stop immediately one of the two highwaymen fired at him (They had guns at the time) – It was at the end ofGunnersbury Lane."Horace Walpole, who was shot at in Hyde Park, wrote that "One is forced to travel, even at noon, as if one was going to battle." During this period, crime was rife and encounters with highwaymen or women could be bloody if the victim attempted to resist. The historianRoy Porter described the use of direct, physical action as a hallmark of public and political life: "From the rough-house of the crowd to the dragoons' musket volley, violence was as English as plum pudding. Force was used not just criminally, but as a matter of routine to achieve social and political goals, smudging hard-and-fast distinctions between the worlds of criminality and politics... Highwaymen were romanticized, with a hidden irony, as 'gentlemen of the road.'"[8]
There is a long history of treating highway robbers as heroes. They were admired by many as bold men who confronted their victimsface to face and were ready to fight for what they wanted.[9]Medieval outlawRobin Hood is regarded as an Englishfolk hero. Later robber heroes included theCavalier highwaymanJames Hind; theFrench-born gentleman highwaymanClaude Du Vall;John Nevison;Dick Turpin;Sixteen String Jack;William Plunkett and his partner, the "Gentleman Highwayman"James MacLaine; the SlovakJuraj Jánošík; and Indians includingKayamkulam Kochunni,Veerappan, andPhoolan Devi. In the same way, thePuerto Rican pirateRoberto Cofresí also came to be venerated as a hero.
Inearly modern Ireland, acts of robbery were often part of a tradition of Irish Catholic resistance to theDublin Castle administration andProtestant Ascendancy. From the mid-17th century onwards, Catholic highwaymen who harassedthe Crown and their supporters were known as 'tories' (from Irishtóraidhe, raider;tóraí inmodern spelling). By the end of the century, they were also known asrapparees. Notable Irish highwaymen of the period includedJames Freney,Redmond O'Hanlon,Willy Brennan and Jeremiah Grant.[10][11]
English highwaymen often laid in wait on the main roads radiating from London. They usually chose lonely areas ofheathland orwoodland.Hounslow Heath was a favourite haunt: it was crossed by the roads toBath andExeter.[12]Bagshot Heath inSurrey was another dangerous place on the road to Exeter. One of the most notorious places in England wasShooter's Hill on theGreat Dover Road.Finchley Common, on theGreat North Road, was nearly as bad.[13]
To the south of London, highwaymen sought to attack wealthy travellers on the roads leading to and from theChannel ports and aristocratic arenas likeEpsom, which became a fashionable spa town in 1620, andBanstead Downs where horse races and sporting events became popular with the elite from 1625. Later in the 18th century the road from London toReigate andBrighton throughSutton attracted highwaymen. Commons and heaths considered to be dangerous includedBlackheath,Putney Heath,Streatham Common,Mitcham Common,Thornton Heath – also the site of a gallows known as "Hangman's Acre" or "Gallows Green" –Sutton Common, Banstead Downs andReigate Heath.[14]
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries, highwaymen inHyde Park were sufficiently common forKing William III to have the route betweenSt James's Palace andKensington Palace (Rotten Row) lit at night with oil lamps as a precaution against them. This made it the firstartificially lit highway in Britain.[15]
The penalty for robbery with violence washanging, and most notorious English highwaymen ended on thegallows. The chief place of execution for London andMiddlesex wasTyburn Tree. Highwaymen whose lives ended there includeClaude Du Vall,James MacLaine, andSixteen-string Jack. Highwaymen who went to the gallows laughing and joking, or at least showing no fear, are said to have been admired by many of the people who came to watch.[16]
During the 18th century, French rural roads were generally safer from highwaymen than those of England, an advantage credited by the historianAlexis de Tocqueville to the existence of a uniformed and disciplined mountedconstabulary known as theMaréchaussée. In England this force was often confused with the regular army and as such cited as an instrument of royal tyranny not to be imitated.[17]
In England, the causes of the decline are more controversial. After about 1815, mounted robbers are recorded only rarely, the last recorded robbery by a mounted highwayman having occurred in 1831.[18] The decline in highwayman activity also occurred during the period in which repeating handguns, notably thepepper-box and thepercussion revolver, became increasingly available and affordable to the average citizen. The development of therailways is sometimes cited as a factor, but highwaymen were already obsolete before the railway network was built. The expansion of the system ofturnpikes, manned and gatedtoll-roads, made it all but impossible for a highwayman to escape notice while making his getaway, but he could easily avoid such systems and use other roads, almost all of which outside the cities were flanked by open country.
Cities such as London were becoming much better policed: in 1805 a body of mounted police began to patrol the districts around the city at night. London was growing rapidly, and some of the most dangerous open spaces near the city, such asFinchley Common, were being covered with buildings. However, this only moved the robbers' operating area further out, to the new exterior of an expanded city, and does not therefore explain decline. A greater use ofbanknotes, more traceable than gold coins, also made life more difficult for robbers,[19] but theInclosure Act 1773[20] was followed by a sharp decline in highway robberies; stone walls falling over the open range like a net, confined the escaping highwaymen to the roads themselves, which now had walls on both sides and were better patrolled.[21]The dramatic population increase which began with theIndustrial Revolution also meant, quite simply, that there were more eyes around, and the concept of remote place became a thing of the past in England.[22]
The bandits inGreece under Ottoman rule were theKlephts (κλέφτες), Greeks who had taken refuge in the inaccessible mountains. The klephts, who acted as a guerilla force, were instrumental in theGreek War of Independence.
The highwaymen of the 17th- to 19-centuryKingdom of Hungary were thebetyárs (Slovak:zbojník). Until the 1830s, they were mainly simply regarded as criminals but an increasing public appetite for betyar songs, ballads and stories gradually gave a romantic image to these armed and usually mounted robbers. Several of thebetyárs have become legendary figures who in the public mind fought for social justice. Hungarian betyárs includedJóska Sobri, Márton Vidróczki, András Juhász, Bandi Angyal, Pista Sisa, Jóska Savanyú.Juraj Jánošík (Hungarian:Jánosik György), who was born and operated in Upper Hungary (nowSlovakia), is still regarded as the Slovak version, andSándor Rózsa theHungarian version ofRobin Hood in their regions.
TheHajduk (Hungarian: Hajdú) also originated in Hungary. They were formed from large numbers of Hungarians forced out of Syrmia and the Banates (Banate of Srebrenik, Banate of Nándorfehérvár, Banat of Macsó), moving upwards to central Hungary because of the Turkish attacks (they are replaced by theSerbs,Bosnians andCroats settling in the region). By the end of the 16th century, they had developed into a significant military force. They developed their own military organisation, separate from the ranks established in the country – they chose their own commanders, captains, lieutenants and corporals. Their rights were later taken away by the Austrians after the defeat of theRákóczi's War of Independence, fearing their military power, they forced them into serfdom, so this was the end of the Hajduk golden age.[23]
The Indian Subcontinent has had a long and documented history of organised robbery for millennia. These included theThuggees, a quasi-religious group that robbed travellers on Indian roads until the cult was systematically eradicated in the mid-1800s by British colonial administrators. Thugees would befriend large road caravans and gain their confidence, before strangling them to death and robbing their valuables. According to some estimates the Thuggees murdered a million people between 1740 and 1840.[24] More generally, armed bands known colloquially as "dacoits" have long wreaked havoc on many parts of the country. In recent times this has often served as a way to fund various regional and political insurgencies that includes the MaoistNaxalite movement.Kayamkulam Kochunni was also a famed highwayman who was active inCentral Travancore in the early 19th century. Along with his close friend Ithikkarappkki from the nearby Ithikkara village, he is said to have stolen from the rich and given to the poor. With the help of anEzhava warrior calledArattupuzha Velayudha Panicker, Kochunni was arrested and sent to Poojappura Central Jail. Legends of his works are compiled infolklore and are still read and heard today.
The bandits in Serbia, Bosnia, Croatia and Bulgaria under Ottoman rule, and in Hungary were theHajduks (Hajduci, Хајдуци, Хайдути) – rebels who opposed Ottoman rule and acted as a guerilla force, also instrumental in the many wars against the Ottomans, especially theSerbian revolution. Serbian and Croatian refugees in Austro-Hungarian (and Habsburg) lands were also part of theUskoci. Notable freedom fighters includeStarina Novak, a notableoutlaw wasJovo Stanisavljević Čaruga.In medievalWallachia,Moldavia,Transylvania and Ukraine, the Haiduks (Romanian – Haiduci, Ukrainian – Гайдуки,Haiduky) were bandits and deserters who lived in forests and robbed localBoyars or other travelers along roads. Sometimes they would help the poor peasants. In the 1800s,betyárs became common in Hungary.
InShakespeare'sHenry IV, Part 1Falstaff is a highwayman, and part of the action of the play concerns a robbery committed by him and his companions. Another highwayman inEnglish drama isCaptain Macheath, hero ofJohn Gay's 18th-centuryballad operaThe Beggar's Opera. The legend ofDick Turpin was significantly boosted byRookwood (1834), in which a heavily fictionalised Turpin is one of the main characters.[25][26]Alfred Noyes'snarrative poem "The Highwayman" has been immensely popular ever since its publication in 1906.
A number of traditionalfolk songs about highwaymen exist, both positive and negative, such as "Young Morgan", "Whiskey in the Jar", and "The Wild Colonial Boy".[27]
From the early 18th century, collections of short stories of highwaymen and other notorious criminals became very popular. The earliest of these is Captain Alexander Smith'sComplete History of the Lives and Robberies of the Most Notorious Highwaymen (1714). Some later collections of this type had the wordsThe Newgate Calendar in their titles and this has become a general name for this kind of publication.[28]
In the later 19th century, highwaymen such as Dick Turpin were the heroes of a number ofpenny dreadfuls, stories for boys published in serial form. In the 20th century the handsome highwayman became astock character in historical love romances, including books byBaroness Orczy andGeorgette Heyer.
SirWalter Scott's romanceThe Heart of Midlothian (1818) recounts the heroine waylaid by highwaymen while travelling from Scotland to London.
Ronia, the Robber's Daughter (1981) is a children'sfantasy book byAstrid Lindgren, which portrays the adventures of Ronia, the daughter of the leader of a gang of highwaymen.
The Belgian comics seriesRobin Dubois [de;fr;nl] byTurk andDe Groot is agag-a-day series aboutRobin Hood's attempts at robbing travellers in the forest.
The Dutch comics seriesGilles de Geus byHanco Kolk andPeter de Wit was originally a gag-a-day about a failed highwayman called Gilles, but the character later evolved into a resistance fighter with theGeuzen against the Spanish army.
Ithikkara Pakki, a graphic children's story book about the Indian highwaymanIthikkara Pakki, was published in April 2010 inMalayalam.[29] The life of the Indian highwaymanKayamkulam Kochunni was adapted as a comic by Radha M. Nair in the794th issue of the Indian comic book series,Amar Chitra Katha.[30]
There were many broadsheetballads about highwaymen; these were often written to be sold on the occasion of a famous robber's execution. A number of highwaymen ballads have remained current inoral tradition in England and Ireland.[31]
The traditional Irish song "Whiskey in the Jar" tells the story of an Irish highwayman who robs an army captain and includes the lines "I first produced me pistol, then I drew me rapier. Said 'Stand and deliver, for you are a bold deceiver'." The hit single version recorded in 1973 by Irish rock bandThin Lizzy renders this last line "I said 'Stand-oh and deliver, or the devil he may take ya'."
The traditional Irish song "The Newry Highwayman" recounts the deeds and death of a highwayman who robbed "the lords and ladies bright". The traditional Irish song "Brennan on the Moor" describes an escapade of the "bold, undaunted robber".Adam and the Ants had a number one song for five weeks in 1981 in the UK with "Stand and Deliver". The video featured Adam Ant as an English highwayman.
The contemporary folk song "On the Road to Fairfax County" byDavid Massengill, recorded byThe Roches and byJoan Baez, recounts a romantic encounter between a highwayman and his female victim. In the end, the highwayman is hanged over the objections of his victim.
MusicianJimmy Webb penned and recorded a song entitled "Highwayman" in 1977 about a soul with incarnations in four different places in time and history, a highwayman, asailor, a construction worker on theHoover Dam, and finally as astar ship captain.Glen Campbell recorded a version of the song in 1978, but the most popular incarnation of the song was recorded byWillie Nelson,Kris Kristofferson,Waylon Jennings andJohnny Cash in 1984, who as a group called themselvesThe Highwaymen.
The Canadian singerLoreena McKennit adapted the narrative poem, "The Highwayman" written byAlfred Noyes, as a song by the same title in her 1997 albumThe Book of Secrets.
TheCarry On films included a highwayman spoof inCarry On Dick (1974).Monty Python sent up the highwayman legends in the Dennis Moore sketch in Episode 37 ofMonty Python's Flying Circus, in whichJohn Cleese played the titular criminal who stole onlylupins.[32] In a linking sketch in an episode ofNot the Nine O'Clock News a highwayman holds up a stagecoach with pistols – in order to wash the coach in exchange for small monies in the manner of a modern-day unsolicited car window washer in traffic. InBlackadder the Third,Mr. E. Blackadder turns highwayman in the episode "Amy and Amiability". In the British children's television seriesDick Turpin, starringRichard O'Sullivan, the highwayman was depicted as an 18th-century Robin Hood figure. Additionally the actorMathew Baynton played Dick Turpin inHorrible Histories. A singing highwayman appears in the fourth episode of the animated mini-series,Over the Garden Wall,Songs of the Dark Lantern.
The highwayman known asJuraj Jánošík (1688–1713) became a hero of many folk legends in theSlovak, Czech, and Polish cultures by the 19th century[33] and hundreds ofliterary works about him have since been published.[34] The firstSlovak feature film wasJánošík, made in 1921, followed by seven more Slovak and Polishfilms about him.
Curro Jiménez, a Spanish TV series which aired from 1976 to 1979, starred a group of 19th-century highwaymen orbandoleros in the mountains ofRonda in the south of Spain.
Ronia, the Robber's Daughter (akaRonja Robbersdaughter in the US) is a 1984 Swedishfantasy film, based on the 1981novel of the same title byAstrid Lindgren, and narrating the adventures of Ronia, the daughter of the leader of a gang of highwaymen.
Ronja, the Robber's Daughter (Japanese: 山賊の娘ローニャ,Hepburn:Sanzoku no Musume Rōnya) is a Japanese animated television series, also based on Lindgren's novelRonia, the Robber's Daughter, and directed and storyboarded byGorō Miyazaki.
The lives of numerous Indian highwaymen includingArattupuzha Velayudha Panicker,Ithikkara Pakki,Jambulingam Nadar,Kayamkulam Kochunni andPapadu have been adapted for cinema and television multiple times.
Season two, episode 20, ofScooby-Doo! Mystery Incorporated, the main villain (voiced byJames Marsters) disguises himself as a highwayman.
The animated seriesOver the Garden Wall featuresJerron Paxton as a highwayman, including a short original song he composed in conjunction withThe Blasting Company.[35]
InFable II, Highwaymen appear as an elite type of enemy which works alongside bandits and makes use of speed and agility over brute strength. It is also possible for players to dress as Highwaymen. There is an enemy type inThe Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim called the "bandit highwayman" that acts as one of the higher-level bandit enemies. InWorld of Warcraft one can encounter the Defias Highwaymen, the strongest members of the Defias Brotherhood. InDarkest Dungeon the Highwayman is a class of hero who wields a dirk and flintlock to fight. InRunescape, highwaymen attack lower-leveled players on a route between two cities. InBushido Blade 2 there is a playable character named Highwayman who is dressed in Victorian clothing and represents the hero archetype. InBloodborne many articles of clothing obtained by "The Hunter" are inspired by Highwaymen attire.
Media related toHighwaymen at Wikimedia Commons
