.jpg)
Engraved glass is a type of decoratedglass that involves shallowly engraving the surface of a glass object, either by holding it against a rotating wheel, or manipulating a "diamond point" in the style of anengraving burin. It is a subgroup ofglass art, which refers to all artistic glass, much of it made by "hot" techniques such as moulding and blowing melting glass, and with other "cold" techniques such asglass etching which uses acidic, caustic, or abrasive substances to achieve artistic effects, andcut glass, which is cut with an abrasive wheel, but more deeply than in engraved glass, where the engraving normally only cuts deeply enough into the surface to leave a mark. Usually the engraved surface is left "frosted" so a difference is visible, while in cut glass the cut surface is polished to restore transparency. Some pieces may combine two or more techniques.
There are several different techniques of glass engraving. It has been practised since ancient times, includingRoman glass, and professionally engraved glass has always been an expensive luxury, requiring lavish amounts of labour by a highly skilled craftsman or artist. In recent centuries the most notable periods and places of production started in the 16th century, initially mostly inVenetian glass, then later in Germany andBohemian glass. From about 1645 it was used in theNetherlands, which was producing the finest engraving by 1700, by which time some engraving was used in most glass-making centres in Europe. The late 17th and early 18th centuries were in some ways the peak period of achievement and popularity. From 1730 onwards it received some competition from the new geometric cut glass style developed in England. These related techniques were often combined in a single piece, but the engraving tended to be relegated to less prominent positions.
In the 19th century cut glass continued to dominate, and new techniques ofetched glass, cheaper than engraving, also took some of the role formerly occupied by engraving. By the later part of the century, a whole variety of techniques, many including coloured glass, had developed. Engraved glass retained some niches, and was sometimes used inart glass and laterstudio glass, but no longer had its former importance, although there has been a revival in Britain, with many public commissions for large window-size pieces.
Much glass remains in private collections, and many museums do not display much of their holdings, and often do not display them to the best advantage, which is usually against a dark background. Wineglasses were meant to be appreciated by holding in the hand, and when full any distracting engraving on the other side of the glass was not visible, or much less so.[1]
_(cropped).jpg)
Glassengraving has a variety of techniques. It is anintaglio form, with images and inscriptions cut into the surface of the glass throughabrasion; but if the cutting is other than very shallow, it becomes glass cutting in the usual terminology. Tools for wheel-engraving glass are typically small abrasive wheels and drills (very similar to those for cut glass), with smalllathes often used. Engraving wheels are traditionally made of copper, with a linseed oil and fineemery powder mixture used as an abrasive. Today stone wheels are often used. However, any sharp point that is hard enough to mark glass may be used, and in the past "diamond-point" engraving has often been used, especially for inscriptions of text. Today this is often called "point engraving",[2] and the tip of the tool is more likely to betungsten carbide than diamond. Such engraving might be added to a glass (or window) at any point after the glass was made, and consequently can be hard to date.[3]
Another form of engraving is "stipple" in which the image is created by a large number of small dots or short lines on the surface of the glass with the use of small diamond-tipped tools. The scratches and small dots made in this method can, in the hands of a skilled artist, be used to produce images of astonishing clarity and detail.[4] A mixture of diamond-point, wheel-engraving and stipple can all be used in the same piece, though most pieces use one of them for most or all of the work. Typically the design, or at least the main outlines, are marked on the glass before engraving begins.
Sandblasting is another technique used in glass engraving. Abrasive is sprayed through a sandblasting gun onto glass which is masked up by a piece of stencil in order to produce inscriptions or images. This is often used for engraving large areas such as windows, and the result is often similar to that achieved byglass etching using acid.[5]
The engraver might be employed by the glassmaker, or completely independent, buyingglass blanks or finished glasses and other pieces to work on. This seems to go as far back as Roman times.[6] Modernlaser engraving on glass is another technique, generally only used for decorative purposes mechanically, for example to reproduce images on mirrors.
_(cropped).jpg)
_(cropped).JPG)
.jpg)
Engraving onRoman glass was mostly of ornamental patterns, but some figurative images were made, apparently from the 2nd century AD onwards, more often on bowls or plates than cups. Some of these are rather complex.[8] These included both pagan and Judeo-Christian religious subjects.[9] Fragments have been found fromWales toAfghanistan.[10]
There was some engraved earlyIslamic glass, but as with the Romans, deep cutting (often called carving) was rather more important.[11] MedievalVenetian glass also used engraving for ornament, but it was generally subordinate to elaborate "hot work" effects, and work inenamelled glass. Most Venetian glass aimed at extreme thinness and delicacy, making it risky to attempt engraving, which was only done lightly with a diamond point.[12] This taste continued through the Renaissance and wheel-engraving was in fact not used in Venice until the eighteenth century, much later than elsewhere.[13]
Diamond-point engraved glass, probably mostly Venetian-made, though possibly engraved later and elsewhere, became gradually more common from about 1530. Some seems to have been made inInnsbruck, where Venetian glassmakers fromMurano were allowed to work for a time under an agreement between theVenetian Republic andArchduke Ferdinand II. As was the case at least until theFrench Revolution,coats of arms were the centre of many decorative schemes, including several pieces with the arms of the MediciPope Pius IV (r. 1559–65). The cargo of a ship wrecked off the coast ofCroatia in 1583, on its way toConstantinople, included engraved and other types of glass, fragments of which have been recovered after the wreck was rediscovered in 1967.[14]
From the 16th to the 18th century there was also a good deal of amateur engraving of glass, much of it just inscribing a name, but some with images. This period coincided with the development ingem-cutting of the modern facet-cut diamond, making the essential diamond-point tool readily to hand for many of the wealthy. Windows were also subject to this treatment. There is rarely any difficulty in distinguishing even the best amateur work from that by professional workshops.[15]
By the later 16th century the efforts of the Venetian Republic to hold on to its virtual monopoly in the production of luxury glass, mainly by keeping skilled workers in the republic, were beginning to fail. Other countries, often led by their monarchs, were keen to have their own fine glass industries, and tempted skilled workers away. This led to a diffusion of the Venetian style to many centres around Europe. The glass made in this movement is called "façon de Venise" ("Venetian style"); the quality is typically rather lower than the Venetian originals, partly from difficulties sourcing the right materials, and the place of manufacture is often hard to discern. Engraved glass was a part of this diffusion, and initially was especially developed in Germany.[16]
In England Jacob Verzelini, a Venetian glassmaker already working in London, was granted a monopoly for 21 years in 1574 over Venetian-style vessel glass. His workshop developed a style with a large amount of simple but attractive engraving, much of it floral, and with the shapes filled in with parallel lines throughout. The engraver seems to have been Anthony de Lysle, a Frenchman.[17]
It was the Germans who first revived the wheel-engraving of glass; it had remained in use forhardstone carving andengraved gems, which are mostly harder than glass.Caspar Lehmann, a gem-cutter perhaps fromMunich, is usually considered the first to engrave glass this way, after arriving inPrague in 1588.[18] Prague had the court ofRudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, a significant patron ofNorthern Mannerism in several of the arts. The Habsburg court moved toVienna after Rudolf's death but the Bohemian glass industry continued to grow in strength, reaching a peak of importance in the 18th century.[19]
Glass engraving continued in Germany, and grew rapidly inBohemia and Silesia, with outcrops in several other countries. By perhaps 1645 glass engraving spread from Germany to the Netherlands,[20] a great centre ofengraving forprintmaking and enjoying the huge economic boom of theDutch Golden Age. Dutch engraving had become the finest in Europe by the end of the century.[21]
The 17th century saw great technical improvements in glass-making, some of which assisted engravers. In Bohemiachalk was added to the basicpotash-lime glass, increasing its strength, workability andrefractive index. Glassworks there were often started or promoted by the owners of great estates; the requirement for large amounts of wood for the kilns assisted the clearance of forests for agricultural land. The power to drive the grinding-wheels was typically produced bywater mills beside the workshop.[22]
.jpg)
Caspar Lehmann's pupilGeorg Schwanhardt moved from Prague to his native city ofNuremberg in 1622, and founded a workshop which lasted over a century, continued by his family and others. Unlike the Bohemian engravers, those in Nuremberg often signed their pieces. The most common shapes made weregoblets with covers andbeakers with "bun" feet. The engraved decoration, normally restricted to the bowl and top of the cover, included a wide range of subjects, drawing from, but not exactly copying, contemporary prints. Portraits of rulers, coats of arms, scenes from classical mythology and the Bible, emblems and allegories are all found, and "battle scenes in woodland settings" were a speciality.[23]
Elsewhere in Germany, "patriotic decoration tended to be the norm", and glass engraving tended to be centred on the many princely courts, many of which had aHofkrystalschneider or court glass engraver with his workshop working largely to service the court, including making glasses, often engraved with his portrait, for the prince to give as presents.[24] The exact use of the typical covered cup (pokale) is not entirely certain; it is unclear how often they were made in sets, and whether they were used often, or reserved for very formal feasts andtoasting.[25]
In Bohemia andSilesia, which became a centre of glass engraving over the 17th century, engravers made more for general commercial sales. Increasing prosperity and expanded production was bringing engraved glass within the reach of a much wider public, and during the first half of the 18th century the Bohemian industry developed a large network of pedlars, including trainee engravers for part of the year, who sold engraved glass across Europe, the trainees able to offer added inscriptions in diamond point to customers. Through Spain, engraved glass could reachMexico and theBlack Sea.[26]
The Frenchstyle Régence, a lighter version of earlier French Baroque, reached Germany and Central Europe after 1710, mostly viaornament prints by French designers such asJean Bérain the Elder andhis son, and the German Paul Decker, working in a similar style. The Germanstrapwork style known asLaub- und bandelwerk became common, as it did in porcelain fromMeissen andVienna from about the 1730s, but tended to become over-elaborate.[27]
.jpg)
"Amateur" engraving in diamond point, sometimes a sideline for artists inprintmaking, was especially strong in the Netherlands, some of it including finecalligraphy, and with women among the most celebrated artists. The well-off sistersMaria andAnna Visscher produced work of this type, whileAnna Maria van Schurman was another Dutch female intellectual, who was also a trained painter.[28] In the 18th century the tax collectorFrans Greenwood was the first to use the stipple engraving technique to make virtually all of his images, which were mostly figure subjects drawn from prints.[29] In 2002 a wineglass of 1742 signed by Greenwood sold for 44,650 euros atChristie's.[30]
The GermanJacob Sang, from a glass-making family ofWeimar, was active inAmsterdam from 1752 to 1762.[31] He was one of the most outstanding professionals, making extremely detailed wheel-engraved scenes. Like many Dutch engravers he preferred to use the slightly less brittle "English" type oflead glass developed byGeorge Ravenscroft some decades before, though it now appears that this was by his time also being made on the continent, atMiddelburg and elsewhere. By the end of the 18th century, as in some other centres, glass engraving had largely fallen from fashion.[32]
Perhaps the greatest Dutch engraver, David Wolff (1732–1798), came at the end of the period, and worked entirely in stipple. His unusual technique involved tapping his tool with a small hammer to make each mark. His individual marks can usually only be seen under magnification, and his backgrounds are "rather dark and mysterious", so that it seems as if "his subjects have stepped forward into the light".[33] Many works once given to him have now been reattributed to three unknown engravers, perhaps forming a workshop.[34] One fine engraver in the stipple style is known only as "Alius",[35] and another isAert Schouman (1710–92), a pupil of Greenwood.[36]
More than elsewhere in Europe, Dutch pieces tend to commemorate a specific occasion, mostly with wheel-engraving. A glass engraved inUtrecht to celebrate the birth ofWilliam V, Prince of Orange in 1748, showing anorange tree with a new shoot, uses an English wineglass made about 30 years earlier.[37] As well as those subjects often found elsewhere, the Dutch often engraved ships, many pieces inscribed for toasting a specific vessel, new business partnerships, and a fairly standard scene of the "mothering chamber" (kraamkamer) with a mother in her curtained bed, with or without a newborn child, and an inscription, usually directed firstly at the mother, around the rim above.[38]
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
English engraving scaled no artistic heights, and the greatest English contribution to glass engraving was Ravenscroft's improved type of lead glass, which was exported and then imitated in at least northern Europe.[39] Initially much of the better engraving was done on English glass sent to the Netherlands to be engraved, or by foreign engravers in England. The finer sorts of English glasses, until the cut glass style arrived in the 1730s, relied heavily for decoration on spirals ("twists") of air held inside the stem. The English invention of the much more deeply cutcut glass style often included engraved ornament, mostly geometrical or floral, in a secondary role, especially near the rim. Later, a band of floral decoration high on the bowl was the most common engraving.[40]
On earlier glass there were many simple inscriptions, some political, as in "Jacobite glass" inscribed with toasts to the exiledHouse of Stuart, or Jacobite emblems, some rather covert. Some surviving examples, especially of the so-called "Amen" type, are probably 19th-century engraving added to 18th-century glasses.[41] The "Amen" glasses have long and fairly standard inscriptions, ending in "Amen", with a crown,English rose, or simple royal monogram or coat of arms. One example reads (in part):[42]
The Bohemian engraver and forgerFranz Tieze (died 1932), working in Ireland, specialized in the other side of the political divide, prolifically addingWilliamite engraving to old glass. It was later realized that a very high proportion of Williamite engraving was forged.[43]
TheBeilby family workshop, active inNewcastle on Tyne between 1757 and 1778 are famous for theirenamelled glass, much of it using only white, so achieving a similar effect to engraving.[44] They have usually been credited with the tall and elegant "Newcastle" glass shape, although in fact many of these were probably made in theLow Countries.[45]
.jpg)
Glass-engraved figurative images as the primary decorative element on a particular object was less common in much of the Western world than before, with Bohemia the main exception. However, enough engraving was used as a secondary technique to keep a large number of trained engravers busy. Apart from light ornament, portraits and landscapes, often hunting scenes were the most popular subjects, and by 1850 "most engravers ... seem to have become stuck in an endless groove of producing stags in landscapes and the like".[46] As the American glass industry developed rapidly in the second half of the century, engraving played its part, initially led by imported experienced engravers.[47]
In the later part of the century various trends enlivened the decoration of glass, some making use of engraving. Victoriancameo glass used acid etching to create two colours oncased glass orflash glass, but there was some use of engraving for similar effects, especially in Bohemia and America.[48] The development ofArt Nouveau glass,art glass and that of theArts and Crafts Movement, with a great emphasis on sculptural form and bright colour, had little place for engraving.[49]
Somewhat unexpectedly, there was a revival of glass engraving in Britain from the mid-1930s. Initially much of it focused on landscape subjects, in a pastoral and slightly Romantic mood whose influences included the painter and printmakerSamuel Palmer (1805–1881), whose early work was being rediscovered. Many used the stipple technique, including the leading figureLaurence Whistler (1912–2000).[50] Whistler, along withDavid Peace andWilliam Wilson are accredited as simultaneously reviving the craft of glass engraving during the 1930s.[51][52]
Whistler had first engraved on glass in 1934, in true 17th-century-style engraving asonnet and floral decoration on a window of a house he was staying at. The innovative style he later developed involved engraving both the inner and outer sides of the glass, giving a sense of depth.[53] From 1955 to the 1980s he made an untypically large set of windows forSt Nicholas' Church, Moreton, inDorset.[54]
In America, theSteuben Glass Works continued to produce engraved glass, both wheel-engraved and diamond point;[55] this proved to be very compatible withArt Deco style in particular.
Especially after World War II in Britain, there were also a number of larger architectural engravings, often featuring figures nearly as large as life-size, executed on windows or glass screens. These included work byJohn Hutton (1906–1978) for the newCoventry Cathedral (completed 1962). Hutton's other commissions for monumental glass included work atGuildford Cathedral, the nationalLibrary and Archives Canada, and many other sites around Britain and the world. A set of figures of the population ofRoman London, completed in 1960 for a now-demolished office block, were relocated toBank Underground station.[56] He developed a new technique for large pieces, using anangle grinder.[57]
Anne Dybka (1922–2007), born and trained in England, emigrated to Australia in 1956, and pursued a career there.[58]Alison Kinnaird (b. 1949) has always been based in Scotland, whileJosephine Harris (1931–2020) worked in London.[59]
There are still many glass engravers who are producing bold, dynamic and aesthetically challenging artworks, but glass engravers feel somewhat pushed aside by thestudio glass movement of recent years, and anxiety about the future of their technique is openly expressed.[60] James Denison-Pender, mostly a stipple engraver, mentioned in an interview that traditional goblets are now very difficult to sell, while the market favours works on flat glass.[61]
The UK Guild of Glass Engravers was founded in 1975, based in London and lists a number of glass artists as members, includingRonald Pennell. It has an online gallery of members' works with contact details for commissions and classes for people who want to learn about this art. A general exhibition is held every two years, with the most recent ones at theFitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge.[62]
