The site is at the edge of theWestern Desert, approximately 9 km (5.6 mi) west of theNile River in the city ofGiza, and about 13 km (8.1 mi) southwest of thecity centre of Cairo. It forms the northernmost part of the 16,000 ha (160 km2; 62 sq mi)Pyramid Fields of theMemphis and its Necropolis UNESCOWorld Heritage Site, inscribed in 1979.[1] The pyramid fields include theAbusir,Saqqara, andDahshur pyramid complexes, which were all built in the vicinity of Egypt's ancient capital ofMemphis.[1] Further Old Kingdom pyramid fields were located at the sitesAbu Rawash,Zawyet El Aryan, andMeidum.
Giza pyramid complex (map)Aerial view from north of cultivated Nile valley with the pyramids in the background (1938)Pyramids of Ghizeh. 1893. Egypt;heliogravure after original views. Wilbour Library of Egyptology.Brooklyn MuseumThe Great Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza in 1914 (Autochrome Lumière)The complex in 1955View from top of the Great Pyramid to thePyramid of Khafre
The Giza pyramid complex consists of theGreat Pyramid (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops orKhufu and constructedc. 2580 – c. 2560 BC), the slightly smallerPyramid of Khafre (or Chephren) a few hundred metres to the south-west, and the relatively modest-sizedPyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos) a few hundred metres farther south-west. TheGreat Sphinx lies on the east side of the complex. Consensus among Egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx is that ofKhafre. Along with these major monuments are a number of smaller satellite edifices, known as "queens" pyramids, causeways, and temples.[6] Besides the archaeological structures, the ancient landscape has also been investigated.[7]
Khufu's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, now buried beneath the village of Nazlet el-Samman;diabase paving andnummulitic limestone walls have been found but the site has not been excavated.[8][9] The valley temple was connected to a causeway that was largely destroyed when the village was constructed. The causeway led to the Mortuary Temple of Khufu, which was connected to the pyramid. Of this temple, the basalt pavement is the only thing that remains. The king's pyramid has three smallerqueen's pyramids associated with it and three boat pits.[10]: 11–19 The boat pits contained a ship, and the two pits on the south side of the pyramid contained intact ships when excavated. One of these ships, theKhufu ship, has been restored and was originally displayed at theGiza Solar boat museum, then subsequently moved to theGrand Egyptian Museum.[11][12]
Khufu's pyramid still has a limited number of casing stones at its base. These casing stones were made of fine white limestone quarried atTura.[6]
Khafre's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, the Sphinx temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple yielded several statues of Khafre. Several were found in a well in the floor of the temple by Mariette in 1860. Others were found during successive excavations by Sieglin (1909–1910), Junker, Reisner, and Hassan. Khafre's complex contained five boat-pits and a subsidiary pyramid with aserdab.[10]: 19–26
Khafre's pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu Pyramid by virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its construction—it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume. Khafre's pyramid retains a prominent display of casing stones at its apex.[6]
Menkaure's pyramid complex consists of a valley temple, a causeway, a mortuary temple, and the king's pyramid. The valley temple once contained several statues of Menkaure. During the5th Dynasty, a smaller ante-temple was added on to the valley temple. The mortuary temple also yielded several statues of Menkaure. The king's pyramid, completedc. 2510 BC, has three subsidiary or queen's pyramids.[10]: 26–35 Of the four major monuments, only Menkaure's pyramid is seen today without any of its original polishedlimestone casing.[6]
Sphinx
The Sphinx partially excavated, photo taken between 1867 and 1899
The Sphinx dates from the reign of kingKhafre.[13] During the New Kingdom,Amenhotep II dedicated a new temple to Hauron-Haremakhet and this structure was added onto by later rulers.[10]: 39–40
Khentkaus I was buried in Giza. Her tomb is known as LG 100 and G 8400 and is located in theCentral Field, near the valley temple ofMenkaure. The pyramid complex of Queen Khentkaus includes her pyramid, a boat pit, a valley temple, and a pyramid town.[10]: 288–289
Most construction theories are based on the idea that the pyramids were built by moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place. Disagreements arise over the feasibility of the different proposed methods by which the stones were conveyed and placed.
In building the pyramids, the architects might have developed their techniques over time. They would select a site on a relatively flat area of bedrock—not sand—which provided a stable foundation. After carefully surveying the site and laying down the first level of stones, they constructed the pyramids in horizontal levels, one on top of the other.
For theGreat Pyramid, most of the stone for the interior seems to have been quarried immediately to the south of the construction site. The smooth exterior of the pyramid was made of a fine grade of white limestone that was quarried across theNile. These exterior blocks had to be carefully cut, transported by river barge to Giza, and dragged up ramps to the construction site. Only a few exterior blocks remain in place at the bottom of the Great Pyramid. During the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century), people may have taken the rest away for building projects in the city of Cairo.[6]
To ensure that the pyramid remained symmetrical, the exterior casing stones all had to be equal in height and width. Workers might have marked all the blocks to indicate the angle of the pyramid wall and trimmed the surfaces carefully so that the blocks fit together. During construction, the outer surface of the stone was smooth limestone; excess stone has eroded over time.[6]
New insights into the closing stages of the Great Pyramid building were provided by the 2013 find ofWadi el-Jarf papyri, especially thediary of inspector Merer, whose team was assigned to deliver the white limestone fromTura quarries to Giza. The journal was already published,[14] as well as a popular account of the importance of this discovery.[15][16]
Purpose
The pyramids of Giza and others are thought to have been constructed to house the remains of the deceasedpharaohs who ruledAncient Egypt.[6] A portion of the pharaoh's spirit called hiska was believed to remain with his corpse. Proper care of the remains was necessary in order for the "former Pharaoh to perform his new duties as king of the dead". It is theorized the pyramid not only served as a tomb for the pharaoh, but also as a storage pit for various items he would need in the afterlife. The people of Ancient Egypt believed that death on Earth was the start of a journey to the next world. The embalmed body of the king was entombed underneath or within the pyramid to protect it and allow his transformation and ascension to theafterlife.[17]
One face of thePyramid of Khafre at Giza, as seen from Khafre's valley templeGiza pyramid complex seen from above3D overview of the Giza complex
The work of quarrying, moving, setting, and sculpting the huge amount of stone used to build the pyramids might have been accomplished by several thousand skilled workers, unskilled laborers and supporting workers. Bakers, carpenters, water carriers, and others were also needed for the project. Along with the methods used to construct the pyramids, there is also wide speculation regarding the exact number of workers needed for a building project of this magnitude. When Greek historianHerodotus visited Giza in 450 BC, he was told by Egyptian priests that "the Great Pyramid had taken 400,000 men 20 years to build, working in three-month shifts 100,000 men at a time." Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid.[6]
The Giza pyramid complex is surrounded by a large stone wall, outside whichMark Lehner and his team discovered a town where the pyramid workers were housed. The village is located to the southeast of theKhafre andMenkaure complexes. Among the discoveries at the workers' village are communal sleeping quarters, bakeries, breweries, and kitchens (with evidence showing that bread, beef, and fish were dietary staples), a copper workshop, a hospital, and a cemetery (where some of the skeletons were found with signs of trauma associated with accidents on a building site).[20] The metal processed at the site was the so-calledarsenical copper.[21] The same material was also identified among the copper artefacts from the "Kromer" site, from the reigns of Khufu and Khafre.[22]
The workers' town appears to date from the middle4th Dynasty (2520–2472 BC), after the accepted time of Khufu and completion of the Great Pyramid. According to Lehner and the AERA team:
The development of this urban complex must have been rapid. All of the construction probably happened in the 35 to 50 years that spanned the reigns of Khafre and Menkaure, builders of the Second and Third Giza Pyramids.
Using pottery shards, seal impressions, and stratigraphy to date the site, the team further concludes:
The picture that emerges is that of a planned settlement, some of the world's earliest urban planning, securely dated to the reigns of two Giza pyramid builders: Khafre (2520–2494 BC) and Menkaure (2490–2472 BC).[23][24]
Radiocarbon data for the Old Kingdom Giza plateau and the workers' settlement were published in 2006,[25] and then re-evaluated in 2011.[26]
Cemeteries
As the pyramids were constructed, themastabas for lesser royals were constructed around them. Near the pyramid of Khufu, the main cemetery is G 7000, which lies in the East Field located to the east of the main pyramid and next to the Queen's pyramids. These cemeteries around the pyramids were arranged along streets and avenues.[27] Cemetery G 7000 was one of the earliest and contained tombs of wives, sons, and daughters of these4th Dynasty rulers. On the other side of the pyramid in the West Field, the royals' sonsWepemnofret andHemiunu were buried in Cemetery G 1200 and Cemetery G 4000, respectively. These cemeteries were further expanded during the5th and6th Dynasties.[10]
The West Field is located to the west of Khufu's pyramid. It is divided into smaller areas such as the cemeteries referred to as the Abu Bakr Excavations (1949–1950, 1950–1951, 1952, and 1953), and several cemeteries named based on themastaba numbers such as Cemetery G 1000, Cemetery G 1100, etc. The West Field contains Cemetery G1000 – Cemetery G1600, and Cemetery G 1900. Further cemeteries in this field are: Cemeteries G 2000, G 2200, G 2500, G 3000, G 4000, and G 6000. Three other cemeteries are named after their excavators: Junker Cemetery West, Junker Cemetery East, and Steindorff Cemetery.[10]: 100–122
The East Field is located to the east of Khufu's pyramid and contains cemetery G 7000. This cemetery was a burial place for some of the family members of Khufu.The cemetery also includes mastabas from tenants and priests of the pyramids dated to the 5th Dynasty and 6th Dynasty.[10]: 179–216
This cemetery dates from the time ofMenkaure (Junker) or earlier (Reisner), and contains several stone-built mastabas dating from as late as the6th Dynasty. Tombs from the time ofMenkaure include the mastabas of the royal chamberlain Khaemnefert, the King's son Khufudjedef (master of the royal largesse), and an official named Niankhre.[10]: 216–228
The Central Field contains several burials of royal family members. The tombs range in date from the end of the4th Dynasty to the5th Dynasty or even later.[10]: 230–293
King's daughter and Queen, middle to end of 4th Dynasty. Also known as the Galarza Tomb
Tombs dating from theSaite and later period were found near the causeway of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. These tombs include the tomb of a commander of the army named Ahmose and his mother Queen Nakhtubasterau, who was the wife ofPharaohAmasis II.[10]: 289–290
South Field
The South Field includes mastabas dating from the1st Dynasty to3rd Dynasty as well as later burials.[28] Of the more significant of these early dynastic tombs are one referred to as "Covington's tomb", otherwise known as Mastaba T, and the large Mastaba V which contained artifacts naming the 1st Dynasty pharaohDjet.[29][28] Other tombs date from the lateOld Kingdom (5th and 6th Dynasty). The south section of the field contains several tombs dating from theSaite period and later.[10]: 294–297
Tombs of the pyramid builders
In 1990, tombs belonging to the pyramid workers were discovered alongside the pyramids, with an additional burial site found nearby in 2009. Although not mummified, they had been buried inmudbrick tombs with beer and bread to support them in the afterlife. The tombs' proximity to the pyramids and the manner of burial supports the theory that they were paid laborers who took pride in their work and were not slaves, as was previously thought. Evidence from the tombs indicates that a workforce of 10,000 laborers working in three-month shifts took around 30 years to build a pyramid. Most of the workers appear to have come from poor families. Specialists such as architects, masons, metalworkers, and carpenters were permanently employed by the king to fill positions that required the most skill.[30][31][32][33]
Shafts
There are multipleburial-shafts and various unfinished shafts and tunnels located in the Giza complex that were discovered and mentioned prominently bySelim Hassan in his reportExcavations at Giza 1933–1934.[34] He states: "Very few of the Saitic [referring to theSaite Period][35] shafts have been thoroughly examined, for the reason that most of them are flooded."[34]: 193
Osiris Shaft
The Osiris Shaft is a narrow burial-shaft leading to three levels for a tomb and below it a flooded area.[36] It was first mentioned by Hassan, and a thorough excavation was conducted by a team led byHawass in 1999.[37] It was opened to tourists in November 2017.[38]
During theNew Kingdom Giza was still an active site. A brick-built chapel was constructed near the Sphinx during the early18th Dynasty, probably by KingThutmose I.Amenhotep II built a temple dedicated to Hauron-Haremakhet near the Sphinx. As a prince, the future pharaohThutmose IV visited the pyramids and the Sphinx; he reported being told in a dream that if he cleared the sand that had built up around the Sphinx, he would be rewarded with kingship. This event is recorded in theDream Stele, which he had installed between the Sphinx's front legs.
During the early years of his reign, Thutmose IV, together with his wife Queen Nefertari, had stelae erected at Giza.
PharaohTutankhamun had a structure built, which is now referred to as the king's resthouse.
During the19th Dynasty,Seti I added to the temple of Hauron-Haremakhet, and his sonRamesses II erected a stela in the chapel before the Sphinx and usurped the resthouse of Tutankhamun.[10]: 39–47
During the21st Dynasty, the Temple of Isis Mistress-of-the-Pyramids was reconstructed. During the26th Dynasty, a stela made in this time mentions Khufu and his QueenHenutsen.[10]: 18
Division of the 1903–1905 excavation of the Giza Necropolis
In 1903, rights to excavate the West Field and Pyramids of the Giza Necropolis were divided by three institutions from Italy, Germany, and the United States of America.
Background
Prior to the division of the Giza Plateau into three institutional concessions in 1903, amateur and private excavations at the Giza Necropolis had been permitted to operate. The work of these amateur archaeologists failed to meet high scientific standards. Montague Ballard, for instance, excavated in the Western Cemetery (with the hesitant permission of the Egyptian Antiquities Service) and neither kept records of his finds nor published them.[39][40][41]
Italian, German, and American Concessions at Giza
In 1902, the Egyptian Antiquities Service underGaston Maspero resolved to issue permits exclusively to authorized individuals representing public institutions.[42] In November of that year, the Service awarded three scholars with concessions on the Giza Necropolis. They were the ItalianErnesto Schiaparelli from the Turin Museum, the GermanGeorg Steindorff from the University of Leipzig who had funding from Wilhelm Pelizaeus, and the AmericanGeorge Reisner from the Hearst Expedition. Within a matter of months, the site had been divided between the concessionaires following a meeting at the Mena House Hotel involving Schiaparelli,Ludwig Borchardt (Steindorff's representative in Egypt), and Reisner.[43]
Division of the West Field
By the turn of the 20th century, the three largest pyramids on the Giza plateau were considered mostly exhausted by previous excavations, so the Western Cemetery and its collection of private mastaba tombs were thought to represent the richest unexcavated part of the plateau. George Reisner's wife, Mary, drew names from a hat to assign three long east-west plots of the necropolis among the Italian, German, and American missions. Schiaparelli was assigned the southernmost strip, Borchardt the center, and Reisner the northernmost.[44]
Division of the Pyramids
Rights to excavate the Pyramids were then also negotiated between Schiaparelli, Borchardt, and Reisner. Schiaparelli gained rights to excavate the Great Pyramid of Khufu along with its three associated queens' pyramids and most of its Eastern Cemetery. Borchardt received Khafre's pyramid, its causeway, the Sphinx, and the Sphinx's associated temples. Reisner claimed Menkaure's pyramid as well as its associated queens' pyramids and pyramid temple, along with a portion of Schiaparelli's Eastern Cemetery. Any future disputes were to be resolved by InspectorJames Quibell, as per a letter from Borchardt to Maspero.[45]
Immediate aftermath
This arrangement lasted until 1905, when, under the supervision of Schiaparelli and Francesco Ballerini, the Italian excavations ceased at Giza. As the Italians were more interested in sites which might yield more papyri, they turned their concession of the southern strip of the Western Cemetery over to the Americans under Reisner.[46]
Egypt'sMinister of Tourism unveiled plans for a€17,000,000 revamp of the complex by the end of 2021, in order to boosttourism in Egypt as well as make the site more accessible and tourist-friendly.[48][49] According toLonely Planet, the refurbishment includes a new visitors' centre, an environmentally-friendly electric bus, a restaurant (the 9 Pyramids Lounge),[50] as well as a cinema, public toilets, site-wide signage, food trucks, photo booths, and free Wi-Fi.[51][52][53] The new facility is part of awider plan to renovate the 4,500 year old site.[54]
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