Tales of Gilgamesh's legendary exploits are narrated in five survivingSumerian poems. The earliest of these is likely "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld",[12] in which Gilgamesh comes to the aid of the goddessInanna and drives away the creatures infesting herhuluppu tree. She gives him two unknown objects, amikku and apikku, which he loses. AfterEnkidu's death, hisshade tells Gilgamesh about the bleak conditions in theUnderworld. The poemGilgamesh and Aga describes Gilgamesh's revolt against his overlordAga of Kish. Other Sumerian poems relate Gilgamesh's defeat of the giantHuwawa and theBull of Heaven, while a fifth, poorly preserved poem relates the account of his death and funeral.
In laterBabylonian times, these stories were woven into a connected narrative. The standard AkkadianEpic of Gilgamesh was composed by a scribe named Sîn-lēqi-unninni, probably during theMiddle Babylonian Period (c. 1600 – c. 1155 BC), based on much older source material. In the epic, Gilgamesh is ademigod of superhuman strength who befriends the wild manEnkidu. Together, they embark on many journeys, most famously defeatingHumbaba (Sumerian: Huwawa) and theBull of Heaven, who is sent to attack them byIshtar (Sumerian: Inanna) after Gilgamesh rejects her offer for him to become her consort. After Enkidu dies of a disease sent as punishment from the gods, Gilgamesh becomes afraid of his own death and visits the sageUtnapishtim, the survivor of theGreat Flood, hoping to findimmortality. Gilgamesh repeatedly fails the trials set before him and returns home to Uruk, realizing that immortality is beyond his reach.
Most scholars agree that theEpic of Gilgamesh exerted substantial influence on theIliad and theOdyssey, two epic poems written inancient Greek during the 8th century BC.[citation needed] The story of Gilgamesh's birth is described in an anecdote inOn the Nature of Animals by the Greek writerAelian (2nd century AD). Aelian relates that Gilgamesh's grandfather kept his mother under guard to prevent her from becoming pregnant, because an oracle had told him that his grandson would overthrow him. She became pregnant and the guards threw the child off a tower, but an eagle rescued him mid-fall and delivered him safely to an orchard, where the gardener raised him.
TheEpic of Gilgamesh was rediscovered in theLibrary of Ashurbanipal in 1849. After being translated in the early 1870s, it caused widespread controversy due to similarities between portions of it and theHebrew Bible. Gilgamesh remained mostly obscure until the mid-20th century, but, since the late 20th century, he has become an increasingly prominent figure in modern culture.
Exit Gišțubar!Theophilus Pinches' 1890 publication of the correct name of Gilgamesh, which had previously been deciphered as Izdubar. This was followed byArchibald Sayce noting that the name had appeared inAelian'sDe Natura Animalium asClassical Greek:Γίλγαμος,romanized: Gilgamos in the early 200s CE.[13]
The modern form "Gilgamesh" is a direct borrowing of the Akkadian𒄑𒂆𒈦, rendered asGilgameš. The Assyrian form of the name derived from the earlier Sumerian form𒄑𒉋𒂵𒎌,Bilgames. It is generally concluded that the name itself translates as "the (kinsman) is a hero", though what type of "kinsman" was meant is a point of controversy. It is sometimes suggested that the Sumerian form of the name was pronouncedPabilgames, reading the componentbilga aspabilga (𒉺𒉋𒂵), a related term which described familial relations, however, this is not supported by epigraphic or phonological evidence.[14]
Seal impression of "Mesannepada, king ofKish", excavated in theRoyal Cemetery at Ur (U. 13607), dated circa 2600 BC.[15][16] The seal shows Gilgamesh and the mythical bull between two lions, one of the lions biting him in the shoulder. On each side of this group appearsEnkidu and a hunter-hero, with a long beard and a Kish-style headdress, armed with a dagger. Under the text, four runners with beard and long hair form a humanSwastika. They are armed with daggers and catch each other's foot.[16]
Most historians generally agree that Gilgamesh was a historical king of the Sumerian city-state ofUruk,[17][18][19][20] who probably ruled sometime during the early part of theEarly Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2350 BC).[17][18]Stephanie Dalley, a scholar of the ancient Near East, states that "precise dates cannot be given for the lifetime of Gilgamesh, but they are generally agreed to lie between 2800 and 2500 BC".[18] An inscription, possibly belonging to a contemporary official under Gilgamesh, was discovered in the archaic texts at Ur;[21] his name reads: "Gilgameš is the one whom Utu has selected". Aside from this theTummal Inscription, a thirty-four-linehistoriographic text written during the reign ofIshbi-Erra (c. 1953 – c. 1920 BC), also mentions him.[19] The inscription credits Gilgamesh with building the walls of Uruk.[22] Lines eleven through fifteen of the inscription read:
For a second time, the Tummal fell into ruin, Gilgamesh built the Numunburra of the House ofEnlil. Ur-lugal, the son of Gilgamesh, Made the Tummal pre-eminent, BroughtNinlil to the Tummal.[23]
Gilgamesh is also connected to KingEnmebaragesi of Kish, a known historical figure who may have lived near Gilgamesh's lifetime.[22] Furthermore, he is listed as one of the kings of Uruk by theSumerian King List.[22] Fragments of an epic text found inMê-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that upon his death Gilgamesh was buried under the river bed,[22] and the workmen of Uruk temporarily diverted the flow of theEuphrates for this purpose.[24][22]
Sculpted scene depicting Gilgamesh wrestling with animals. From the Shara temple atTell Agrab, Diyala Region, Iraq.Early Dynastic Period, 2600–2370 BC. On display at theNational Museum of Iraq inBaghdad.Mace dedicated to Gilgamesh, with transcription of the name Gilgamesh (𒀭𒉈𒂵𒈩) in standard Sumero-Akkadiancuneiform,Ur III period, between 2112 and 2004 BC
It is certain that, during the laterEarly Dynastic Period, Gilgamesh was worshiped as a god at various locations across Sumer.[17] In the 21st century BC, KingUtu-hengal of Uruk adopted Gilgamesh as his patron deity.[17] The kings of theThird Dynasty of Ur (c. 2112 – c. 2004 BC) were especially fond of Gilgamesh,[17][22] calling him their "divine brother" and "friend."[17] KingShulgi of Ur (2029–1982 BC) declared himself the son ofLugalbanda andNinsun and the brother of Gilgamesh.[22] Over the centuries, there may have been a gradual accretion of stories about Gilgamesh, some possibly derived from the real lives of other historical figures, such asGudea, the Second Dynasty ruler ofLagash (2144–2124 BC).[25] Prayers inscribed on clay tablets address Gilgamesh as a judge of the dead in the Underworld.[22]
During this period, a large number of myths and legends developed surrounding Gilgamesh.[17][26][27][28]: 95 Five independent Sumerian poems have been discovered narrating his exploits.[17] Gilgamesh's first appearance in literature is probably in the Sumerian poem "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld".[29][22][30] The narrative begins with ahuluppu tree—perhaps, according to the SumerologistSamuel Noah Kramer, a willow,[31] growing on the banks of the riverEuphrates.[31][22][32] The goddess Inanna moves the tree to her garden inUruk with the intention to carve it into a throne once it is fully grown.[31][22][32] The tree grows and matures, but the serpent "who knows no charm," theAnzû-bird, andLilitu, aMesopotamian demon, invade the tree, causing Inanna to cry with sorrow.[31][22][32]
Gilgamesh, who in this story is portrayed as Inanna's brother, slays the serpent, causing theAnzû-bird and Lilitu to flee.[33][22][32] Gilgamesh's companions chop down the tree and carve it into a bed and a throne for Inanna.[34][22][32] The goddess responds by fashioning apikku and amikku (perhaps a drum and drumsticks)[35][22] as a reward for Gilgamesh's heroism.[36][22][32] But Gilgamesh loses thepikku andmikku and asks who will retrieve them.[37] His servant Enkidu descends to the Underworld to find them,[38] but he disobeys its strict laws and can never return.[38] In the remaining dialog, Gilgamesh questions theshade of his lost comrade about the Underworld.[17][37]
Gilgamesh and Agga describes Gilgamesh's successful revolt against his liege lordAgga, king of the city-state ofKish.[17][39]Gilgamesh and Huwawa describes how Gilgamesh and his servantEnkidu, with the help of fifty volunteers from Uruk, defeat the monsterHuwawa, an ogre appointed as guardian of theCedar Forest by the ruling godEnlil.[17][40][41]
InGilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven, Gilgamesh and Enkidu slay theBull of Heaven, who has been sent to attack them by the goddessInanna.[17][42][43] The details of this poem differ substantially from the corresponding episode in the later AkkadianEpic of Gilgamesh.[44] In the Sumerian poem, Inanna remains aloof from Gilgamesh, but in the Akkadian epic she asks him to become her consort.[42] Also, while pressing her fatherAn to give her the Bull of Heaven, in Sumerian Inanna threatens a deafening cry that will reach the earth, while in Akkadian she threatens towake the dead to eat the living.[44]
A poem known asThe Death of Gilgamesh is poorly preserved, but appears to describe a major state funeral followed by the arrival of the deceased in the Underworld. The poem may have been misinterpreted, and may actually depict the death of Enkidu.[45][17]
Gilgamesh became the hero par excellence of the ancient world—an adventurous, brave, but tragic figure symbolizing man's vain but endless drive for fame, glory, and immortality.
In the epic, Gilgamesh is introduced as "two thirds divine and one third mortal".[51] At the beginning of the poem, Gilgamesh is described as a brutal, oppressive ruler.[17][51] This is usually interpreted to mean either forced labor or sexual exploitation.[17] As punishment for his cruelty, the godAnu creates the wild man Enkidu.[52] After being tamed by a prostitute namedShamhat, Enkidu journeys to Uruk to confront Gilgamesh.[47] In the second tablet, the two men wrestle and though Gilgamesh wins in the end,[47] he is so impressed by his opponent's strength and tenacity that they become close friends.[47] In the earlier Sumerian texts, Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant,[47] but, in theEpic of Gilgamesh, they are companions of equal standing.[47]
In tablets III through IV, Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel to theCedar Forest, which is guarded by Humbaba (the Akkadian name for Huwawa).[47] The heroes cross the seven mountains to the Cedar Forest, where they begin chopping down trees.[53] Confronted by Humbaba, Gilgamesh panics and prays toShamash (the East Semitic name for Utu),[53] who blows eight winds in Humbaba's eyes, blinding him.[53] Humbaba begs for mercy, but the heroes decapitate him.[53] Tablet VI begins with Gilgamesh returning to Uruk,[47] whereIshtar (the Akkadian name for Inanna) comes to him and demands him as her consort.[47][53][54] Gilgamesh rejects her, reproaching her mistreatment of all her former lovers.[47][53][54]
In revenge, Ishtar goes to her fatherAnu and demands that he give her the Bull of Heaven,[55][56][44] which she sends to attack Gilgamesh.[47][55][56][44] Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill the Bull and offer its heart to Shamash.[57][56] While Gilgamesh and Enkidu are resting, Ishtar stands up on the walls ofUruk and curses Gilgamesh.[57][58] Enkidu tears off the Bull's right thigh and throws it in Ishtar's face,[57][58] saying, "If I could lay my hands on you, it is this I should do to you, and lash your entrails to your side."[59][58] Ishtar calls together "the crimped courtesans, prostitutes and harlots"[57] and orders them to mourn for the Bull of Heaven.[57][58] Meanwhile, Gilgamesh holds a celebration over the Bull's defeat.[60][58]
Tablet VII begins with Enkidu recounting adream in which he saw Anu,Ea, and Shamash declare that either Gilgamesh or Enkidu must die to avenge the Bull of Heaven.[47] They choose Enkidu, who soon grows sick.[47] He has a dream of the Underworld, and then dies.[47] Tablet VIII describes Gilgamesh's inconsolable grief for his friend[47][61] and the details of Enkidu's funeral.[47] Tablets IX through XI relate how Gilgamesh, driven by grief and fear of his own mortality, travels a great distance and overcomes many obstacles to find the home ofUtnapishtim, the sole survivor of theGreat Flood, who was rewarded with immortality by the gods.[47][61]
EarlyMiddle Assyriancylinder seal impression dating between 1400 and 1200 BC, showing a man with bird wings and a scorpion tail firing an arrow at agriffin on ahillock. Ascorpion man is among the creatures Gilgamesh encounters on his journey to the homeland ofUtnapishtim.[61]
The journey to Utnapishtim involves a series of episodic challenges, which probably originated as major independent adventures,[61] but, in the epic, they are reduced to whatJoseph Eddy Fontenrose calls "fairly harmless incidents".[61] First, Gilgamesh encounters and slays lions in the mountain pass.[61] Upon reaching the mountain ofMashu, Gilgamesh encounters ascorpion man and his wife;[61] their bodies flash with terrifying radiance,[61] but once Gilgamesh tells them his purpose, they allow him to pass.[61] Gilgamesh wanders through darkness for twelve days before he finally comes into the light.[61] He finds a beautiful garden by the sea in which he meetsSiduri, the divineAlewife.[61] At first, she tries to prevent Gilgamesh from entering the garden,[61] and then attempts to persuade him to accept death as inevitable and not journey beyond the waters.[61] When Gilgamesh persists in his quest, she directs him toUrshanabi, the ferryman of the gods, who takes Gilgamesh across the sea to Utnapishtim.[61] When Gilgamesh finally arrives at Utnapishtim's home, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that, to become immortal, he must defy sleep.[47] Gilgamesh attempts this, but fails and falls into a seven-day sleep.[47]
Next, Utnapishtim tells him that, even if he cannot obtain immortality, he can restore his youth with a rejuvenating herb.[47][32] Gilgamesh takes the plant, but leaves it on the shore while swimming and a snake steals it, explaining why snakesshed their skins.[47][32] Despondent at this loss, Gilgamesh returns to Uruk,[47] and shows his city to the ferryman Urshanabi.[47] At this point the continuous narrative ends.[47][32][62] Tablet XII is an appendix corresponding to the Sumerian poem ofGilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld describing the loss of thepikku andmikku.[47][32][62]
Numerous elements reveal a lack ofcontinuity with the earlier portions of the epic.[62] At the beginning of Tablet XII, Enkidu is still alive, despite having previously died in Tablet VII,[62] and Gilgamesh is kind to Ishtar, despite the violent rivalry between them in Tablet VI.[62] Also, while most of the parts of the epic are free adaptations of their respective Sumerian predecessors,[63] Tablet XII is a literal, word-for-word translation of the last part ofGilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld,[63] and was probably relegated to the end because it did not fit the larger epic narrative.[47][32][62] In it, Gilgamesh sees a vision of Enkidu's ghost, who promises to recover the lost items[47][37] and describes to his friend the abysmal condition of the Underworld.[47][37]
The Gilgamesh Dream tablet. From Iraq. Middle Babylonian Period, First Sealand Dynasty, 1732–1460 BC. Iraq Museum, Baghdad. This dream tablet recounts a part of the epic of Gilgamesh in which the hero (Gilgamesh) describes his dreams to his mother (the goddess Ninsun), who interprets them as announcing the arrival of a new friend, who will become his companion
Although stories about Gilgamesh were wildly popular throughout ancient Mesopotamia,[64] authentic representations of him in ancient art are uncommon.[64] Popular works often identify depictions of a hero with long hair, containing four or six curls, as representations of Gilgamesh,[64] but this identification is known to be incorrect.[64] A few genuine ancient Mesopotamian representations of Gilgamesh do exist, however.[64] These representations are mostly found on clay plaques and cylinder seals.[64] Generally, it is only possible to identify a figure as Gilgamesh if the work clearly depicts a scene from theEpic of Gilgamesh itself.[64] One set of representations of Gilgamesh is found in scenes of two heroes fighting a demonic giant, clearly Humbaba.[64] Another set is found in scenes showing a similar pair of heroes confronting a giant winged bull, clearly the Bull of Heaven.[64]
TheEpic of Gilgamesh exerted substantial influence on theIliad and theOdyssey, the Homeric epic poems written inancient Greek during the eighth century BC.[68][65][69][70] According to classics scholarBarry B. Powell, early Greeks were probably exposed to and influenced by Mesopotamian oral traditions through their extensive connections to the civilizations of the ancient Near East.[20] German classicistWalter Burkert observes that the scene in Tablet VI of theEpic of Gilgamesh in which Gilgamesh rejects Ishtar's advances and she complains before her motherAntu, but is mildly rebuked by her fatherAnu, is directly paralleled in Book V of theIliad.[71] In this scene,Aphrodite, the Greek analogue of Ishtar, is wounded by the heroDiomedes and flees toMount Olympus, where she cries to her motherDione and is mildly rebuked by her fatherZeus.[71]
Powell observes that the opening lines of theOdyssey seem to echo the opening lines of theEpic of Gilgamesh, both praising and pitying their heroes.[51] The storyline of theOdyssey likewise bears many similarities to theEpic of Gilgamesh.[72][73] Both Gilgamesh and Odysseus encounter a woman who can turn men into animals: Ishtar (for Gilgamesh) andCirce (for Odysseus).[72] Odysseus blinds the giantcyclopsPolyphemus,[65] while Gilgamesh slays of Humbaba.[65] Both heroes visit the Underworld[72] and both find themselves unhappy while living in an otherworldly paradise in the company of a seductive sorceress: Siduri (for Gilgamesh) andCalypso (for Odysseus).[72] Finally, both have a missed opportunity for immortality, Gilgamesh when he loses the plant, and Odysseus when he leaves Calypso's island.[72]
The story of Gilgamesh's birth is not recorded in any extant Sumerian or Akkadian text,[64] but a version of it is described inDe Natura Animalium (On the Nature of Animals) 12.21, acommonplace book written inGreek around 200 AD by the Hellenized Roman oratorAelian.[76][64] According to Aelian, anoracle told King Seuechoros (Σευεχορος) of the Babylonians that his grandson Gilgamos would overthrow him.[64] To prevent this, Seuechoros kept his only daughter under close guard at theAcropolis of Babylon,[64] but she became pregnant nonetheless.[64] Fearing the king's wrath, the guards hurled the infant off the top of a tall tower.[64] An eagle rescued the boy in mid-flight and set him down in a distant orchard.[64] The caretaker found the boy and raised him, naming himGilgamos (Γίλγαμος).[64] Eventually, Gilgamos returned to Babylon and overthrew his grandfather, proclaiming himself king.[64] This birth narrative is in the same tradition as other Near Eastern birth legends,[64] such as those ofSargon,Moses, andCyrus.[64] The Syriac writerTheodore Bar Konai (c. AD 600) also mentions a kingGligmos,Gmigmos orGamigos as the last of a line of twelve kings contemporaneous with the patriarchs from Peleg to Abraham.[77][78]
In 1880, the EnglishAssyriologistGeorge Smith (left) published a translation of Tablet XI of theEpic of Gilgamesh (right), containing the Flood myth,[79] which attracted immediate scholarly attention and controversy due to its similarity to theGenesis flood narrative.[80]
The Akkadian text of theEpic of Gilgamesh was first discovered in 1849 AD by the English archaeologistAusten Henry Layard in theLibrary of Ashurbanipal at Nineveh.[22][50][28]: 95 Layard was seeking evidence to confirm the historicity of the events described in theHebrew Bible, i.e. the ChristianOld Testament,[22] which was believed to contain the oldest texts in the world.[22] Instead, his and later excavations unearthed much older Mesopotamian texts[22] and showed that many of the stories in the Old Testament may be derived from earlier myths told throughout the ancient Near East.[22] The first translation of theEpic of Gilgamesh was produced in the early 1870s byGeorge Smith, a scholar at theBritish Museum,[79][81][82] who published the Flood story from Tablet XI in 1880 under the titleThe Chaldean Account of Genesis.[79] Gilgamesh's name was originally misread asIzdubar.[79][83][84]
Early interest in theEpic of Gilgamesh was almost exclusively on account of the flood story from Tablet XI.[85] It attracted enormous public attention and drew widespread scholarly controversy, while the rest of the epic was largely ignored.[85] Most attention towards theEpic of Gilgamesh in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries came from German-speaking countries,[86] where controversy raged over the relationship betweenBabel und Bibel ("Babylon and Bible").[87]
In January 1902, the German AssyriologistFriedrich Delitzsch gave a lecture at theSing-Akademie zu Berlin before theKaiser and his wife, in which he argued that the Flood story in the Book of Genesis was directly copied from theEpic of Gilgamesh.[85] Delitzsch's lecture was so controversial that, by September 1903, he had managed to collect thousands of articles and pamphlets criticizing this lecture about the Flood and another about the relationship between theCode of Hammurabi and the biblicalLaw of Moses.[88] The Kaiser distanced himself from Delitzsch and his radical views[88] and by the fall of 1904, Delitzsch was reduced to giving his third lecture inCologne andFrankfurt am Main rather than in Berlin.[88] The putative relationship between theEpic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible later became a major part of Delitzsch's argument in his 1920–21 bookDie große Täuschung (The Great Deception) that the Hebrew Bible was irredeemably "contaminated" by Babylonian influence[85] and that only by eliminating the human Old Testament entirely could Christians finally believe in the true,Aryan message of theNew Testament.[85]
Illustration of Izdubar (Gilgamesh) in a scene from the book-length poemIshtar and Izdubar (1884) by Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, the first modern literary adaptation of theEpic of Gilgamesh[89]
The first modern literary adaptation of theEpic of Gilgamesh wasIshtar and Izdubar (1884) by Leonidas Le Cenci Hamilton, an American lawyer and businessman.[89] Hamilton had rudimentary knowledge of Akkadian, which he had learned fromArchibald Sayce's 1872Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes.[90] Hamilton's book relied heavily on Smith's translation of theEpic of Gilgamesh,[90] but also made major changes.[90] For instance, Hamilton omitted the famous flood story entirely[90] and instead focused on the romantic relationship between Ishtar and Gilgamesh.[90]Ishtar and Izdubar expanded the original roughly 3,000 lines of theEpic of Gilgamesh to roughly 6,000 lines of rhyming couplets grouped into forty-eightcantos.[90] Hamilton significantly altered most of the characters and introduced entirely new episodes not found in the original epic.[90] Significantly influenced byEdward FitzGerald'sRubaiyat of Omar Khayyam andEdwin Arnold'sThe Light of Asia,[90] Hamilton's characters dress more like nineteenth-century Turks than ancient Babylonians.[91] Hamilton also changed the tone of the epic from the "grim realism" and "ironic tragedy" of the original to a "cheery optimism" filled with "the sweet strains of love and harmony".[92]
In his 1904 bookDas Alte Testament im Lichte des alten Orients, the German AssyriologistAlfred Jeremias equated Gilgamesh with the kingNimrod from theBook of Genesis[93] and argued Gilgamesh's strength must come from his hair, like the heroSamson in theBook of Judges,[93] and that he must have performedTwelve Labors like the heroHeracles inGreek mythology.[93] In his 1906 bookDas Gilgamesch-Epos in der Weltliteratur, the OrientalistPeter Jensen declared that theEpic of Gilgamesh was the source behind nearly all the stories in the Old Testament,[93] arguing thatMoses is "the Gilgamesh of Exodus who saves the children of Israel from precisely the same situation faced by the inhabitants of Erech at the beginning of the Babylonian epic."[93] He then proceeded to argue thatAbraham,Isaac, Samson,David, and various other biblical figures are all nothing more than exact copies of Gilgamesh.[93] Finally, he declared that evenJesus is "nothing but an Israelite Gilgamesh. Nothing but an adjunct to Abraham, Moses, and countless other figures in the saga."[93] This ideology became known asPanbabylonianism[94] and was almost immediately rejected by mainstream scholars.[94] The most stalwart critics of Panbabylonianism were those associated with the emergingReligionsgeschichtliche Schule.[95]Hermann Gunkel dismissed most of Jensen's purported parallels between Gilgamesh and biblical figures as mere baseless sensationalism.[95] He concluded that Jensen and other Assyriologists like him had failed to understand the complexities of Old Testament scholarship[94] and had confused scholars with "conspicuous mistakes and remarkable aberrations".[94]
In English-speaking countries, the prevailing scholarly interpretation during the early twentieth century was one originally proposed bySir Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baronet,[96] which held that Gilgamesh is a "solar hero", whose actions represent the movements of the sun,[96] and that the twelve tablets of his epic represent the twelve signs of theBabylonian zodiac.[96] The Austrian psychoanalystSigmund Freud, drawing on the theories ofJames George Frazer and Paul Ehrenreich, interpreted Gilgamesh and Eabani (the earlier misreading forEnkidu) as representing "man" and "crude sensuality" respectively.[97][98] He compared them to other brother-figures in world mythology,[98] remarking, "One is always weaker than the other and dies sooner. In Gilgamesh this ages-old motif of the unequal pair of brothers served to represent the relationship between a man and hislibido."[98] He also saw Enkidu as representing theplacenta, the "weaker twin" who dies shortly after birth.[99] Freud's friend and pupilCarl Jung frequently discusses Gilgamesh in his early workSymbole der Wandlung (1911–1912).[100] He, for instance, cites Ishtar's sexual attraction to Gilgamesh as an example of the mother'sincestuous desire for her son,[100] Humbaba as an example of an oppressive father-figure whom Gilgamesh must overcome,[100] and Gilgamesh himself as an example of a man who forgets his dependence onthe unconscious and is punished by the "gods", who represent it.[100]
In the years followingWorld War II, Gilgamesh, formerly an obscure figure known only by a few scholars, gradually became increasingly popular with modern audiences.[101][82] TheEpic of Gilgamesh's existential themes made it particularly appealing to German authors in the years following the war.[82] In his 1947existentialist novelDie Stadt hinter dem Strom, the German novelistHermann Kasack adapted elements of the epic into a metaphor for theaftermath of the destruction of World War II in Germany,[82] portraying the bombed-out city ofHamburg as resembling the frightening Underworld seen by Enkidu in his dream.[82] InHans Henny Jahnn'smagnum opusRiver Without Shores (1949–1950), the middle section of the trilogy centers around a composer whose twenty-year-long homoerotic relationship with a friend mirrors that of Gilgamesh with Enkidu[82] and whose masterpiece turns out to be a symphony about Gilgamesh.[82]
The Quest of Gilgamesh, a 1953 radio play byDouglas Geoffrey Bridson, helped popularize the epic in Britain.[82] In theUnited States,Charles Olson praised the epic in his poems and essays[82] andGregory Corso believed that it contained ancient virtues capable of curing what he viewed as modern moral degeneracy.[82] The 1966 postfigurative novelGilgamesch by Guido Bachmann became a classic of German "queer literature"[82] and set a decades-long international literary trend of portraying Gilgamesh and Enkidu as homosexual lovers.[82] This trend proved so popular that theEpic of Gilgamesh itself is included inThe Columbia Anthology of Gay Literature (1998) as a major early work of that genre.[82] In the 1970s and 1980s,feminist literary critics analyzed theEpic of Gilgamesh as showing evidence for a transition from theoriginal matriarchy of all humanity to modernpatriarchy.[82] As theGreen Movement expanded in Europe, Gilgamesh's story beganto be seen through an environmentalist lens,[82] with Enkidu's death symbolizing man's separation from nature.[82]
Theodore Ziolkowski, a scholar of modern literature, states, that "unlike most other figures from myth, literature, and history, Gilgamesh has established himself as an autonomous entity or simply a name, often independent of the epic context in which he originally became known. (As analogous examples one might think, for instance, of theMinotaur orFrankenstein's monster.)"[103] TheEpic of Gilgamesh has been translated into many major world languages[104] and has become a staple of Americanworld literature classes.[105] Many contemporary authors and novelists have drawn inspiration from it, including an Americanavant-garde theater collective called "The Gilgamesh Group"[106] andJoan London in her novelGilgamesh (2001).[106][82]The Great American Novel (1973) byPhilip Roth features a character named "Gil Gamesh",[106] who is the starpitcher of a fictional 1930sbaseball team called the "Patriot League".[106]
Starting in the late twentieth century, theEpic of Gilgamesh began to be read again in Iraq.[104]Saddam Hussein, the formerPresident of Iraq, had a lifelong fascination with Gilgamesh.[107]Saddam's first novelZabibah and the King (2000) is an allegory for theGulf War set in ancient Assyria that blends elements of theEpic of Gilgamesh and theOne Thousand and One Nights.[108] Like Gilgamesh, the king at the beginning of the novel is a brutal tyrant who misuses his power and oppresses his people,[109] but, through the aid of a commoner woman named Zabibah, he grows into a more just ruler.[110] When the United States tried to pressure Saddam to step down in February 2003, Saddam gave a speech to a group of his generals posing the idea in a positive light by comparing himself to the epic hero.[104]
Scholars likeSusan Ackerman andWayne R. Dynes have noted that the language used to describe Gilgamesh's relationship with Enkidu seems to have homoerotic implications.[111][112][113] Ackerman notes that, when Gilgamesh veils Enkidu's body, Enkidu is compared to a "bride".[111] Ackerman states, "that Gilgamesh, according to both versions, will love Enkidu 'like a wife' may further imply sexual intercourse."[111]
The Australian psychedelic rock bandKing Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard recorded a song titled "Gilgamesh" as the fifth track of their October 2023 albumThe Silver Cord, with references to the epic in the song's lyrics.[114]
^The name translates roughly as "The Ancestor is a Young-man",[10] fromBil.ga "Ancestor", Elder[11]: 33 andMes/Mesh3 "Young-Man".[11]: 174 See alsoThe Electronic Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary. University of Pennsylvania. Archived fromthe original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved7 August 2014..
^George, Andrew R. (2010) [2003].The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic – Introduction, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts (in English and Akkadian). Vol. 1, 2 (reprint ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 163.ISBN978-0-19814922-4.OCLC819941336.
^Gonzalo Rubio. "Reading Sumerian Names, II: Gilgameš."Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 64, The American Schools of Oriental Research, 2012, pp. 3–16,https://doi.org/10.5615/jcunestud.64.0003.
^Hall, H. R.; Woolley, Leonard; Legrain, Leon (1900).Ur excavations. Trustees of the Two Museums by the aid of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation of New York. p. 312.
^abImage of a Mesanepada seal in:Legrain, Léon (1936).Ur Excavations(PDF). Vol. III. Archaic Seal-Impressions. The Trustees of the Two Museums by the Aid of a Grant from the Carnagie Corporation of New York. p. 44 seal 518 for description, Plate 30, seal 518 for image.
^Smith, George (1872) [3 December 1872]."The Chaldean Account of the Deluge".Transactions of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, Volumes 1–2. Vol. 2. London: Society of Biblical Archæology. pp. 213–214. Retrieved12 October 2017.
Ackerman, Susan (2005).When Heroes Love: The Ambiguity of Eros in the Stories of Gilgamesh and David. New York City: Columbia University Press.ISBN978-0-231-50725-7.
Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992).Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 166–168.ISBN978-0-7141-1705-8.
Delorme, Jean (1981) [1964]."The Ancient World". In Dunan, Marcel; Bowle, John (eds.).The Larousse Encyclopedia of Ancient and Medieval History. New York City: Excaliber Books.ISBN978-0-89673-083-0.
Wolkstein, Diane; Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983).Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer. New York City, New York: Harper&Row.ISBN978-0-06-090854-6.
Hammond, D.; Jablow, A. (1987). "Gilgamesh and the Sundance Kid: the Myth of Male Friendship". In Brod, H. (ed.).The Making of Masculinities: The New Men's Studies. Boston. pp. 241–258.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Oberhuber, K., ed. (1977).Das Gilgamesch-Epos. Darmstadt:Wege der Forschung.
Parpola, Simo; Luuko, Mikko; Fabritius, Kalle (1997).The Standard Babylonian, Epic of Gilgamesh. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project.ISBN978-9514577604.
Pettinato, Giovanni (1992).La saga di Gilgamesh. Milan: Rusconi Libri.ISBN978-88-18-88028-1.
.jpg)
.jpg)
_-_EnKi_(Sumerian).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_Colorized_per_source.jpg)
%2c_Hamadan_mint.jpg)
