NowPhoenicia andSyria encompass about the Galilees, which are two, and called the Upper Galilee and the Lower. They are bounded toward the sun-setting, with the borders of the territory belonging toPtolemais, and byCarmel; which mountain had formerly belonged to the Galileans, but now belonged to the Tyrians; to which mountain adjoinsGaba, which is called the City of Horsemen, because those horsemen that were dismissed by Herod the king dwelt therein; they are bounded on the south withSamaria andScythopolis, as far as theriver Jordan; on the east withHippeae andGadaris, and also with Ganlonitis, and the borders of the kingdom of Agrippa; its northern parts are bounded by Tyre, and the country of the Tyrians. As for that Galilee which is called the Lower, it extends in length fromTiberias toZabulon, and of the maritime places Ptolemais is its neighbor; its breadth is from the village calledXaloth, which lies in the great plain, as far asBersabe, from which beginning also is taken the breadth of the Upper Galilee, as far as thevillage Baca, which divides the land of the Tyrians from it; its length is also fromMeloth toThella, a village near to Jordan.[5]
Most of Galilee consists of rocky terrain, at heights of between 500 and 700 m. Several high mountains are in the region, includingMount Tabor andMount Meron, which have relatively low temperatures and high rainfall. As a result of this climate,flora andfauna thrive in the region. At the same time, many birds annually migrate from colder climates to Africa and back through theHula–Jordan corridor. The streams and waterfalls, the latter mainly in Upper Galilee, along with vast fields of greenery and colourful wildflowers, as well as numerous towns ofbiblical importance, make the region a populartourist destination.
Due to its high rainfall 900–1,200 millimetres (35–47 in), mild temperatures and high mountains (Mount Meron's elevation is 1,000–1,208 m), the upper Galilee region contains some distinctive flora and fauna: prickly juniper (Juniperus oxycedrus), Lebanese cedar (Cedrus libani), which grows in a small grove on Mount Meron,cyclamens,paeonias, andRhododendron ponticum which sometimes appears on Meron.
Western Galilee (Hebrew:גליל מערבי,romanized: Galil Ma'aravi) is a modern term referring to the western part of the Upper Galilee and its shore, and usually also the northwestern part of the Lower Galilee, mostly overlapping with Acre sub-district.Galilee Panhandle is a common term referring to the "panhandle" in the east that extends to the north, where Lebanon is to the west, and includesHula Valley andRamot Naftali mountains of the Upper Galilee.
According to theBible, Galilee was named by the Israelites and was the tribal region of Naphthali and Dan, at times overlapping theTribe of Asher's land.[6] Normally,[when?] Galilee is just referred to as "Naphthali".
1 Kings 9 states thatSolomon rewarded his Phoenician ally,King Hiram I ofSidon, with twenty cities in the land of Galilee, which would then have been either settled by foreigners during and after the reign of Hiram or by those who had been forcibly deported there by later conquerors such as theNeo-Assyrian Empire. Hiram, to reciprocate previous gifts given toDavid, accepted the upland plain among the Naftali Mountains and renamed it "the land ofCabul" for a time.[7]
In the Iron Age II, Galilee was part of theKingdom of Israel, whichfell to the Assyrians. Archaeological survey conducted by Zvi Gal in Lower Galilee indicates that the area became deserted following the Assyrian conquest in the 8th century and remained so for several centuries; the local Israelite populationwas carried off to Assyria after 732 BCE.[8][9] Yardenna Alexandre discovered minor short-lived Israelite settlements in the Naḥal Ẓippori basin, which were built by survivors of the Assyrian conquest. Elsewhere, Galilee was depopulated.[10] But there is evidence of Assyrian presence, based on artefacts inCana,[11] andKonrad Schmid and Jens Schroter believe it was likely that Assyrians settled in the region.[12]
Hellenistic period
Up until the end of theHellenistic period and before theHasmonean conquest, the Galilee was sparsely populated, with the majority of its inhabitants concentrated in large fortified centers on the edges of the western and central valleys. Based on archeological evidence fromTel Anafa,Kedesh, andash-Shuhara, the Upper Galilee was then home to apagan population with close ties to thePhoenician coast.[13]
Hasmonean period
During the expansion of theHasmonean kingdom of Judea, much of the Galilee region was conquered and annexed by the first Hasmonean kingAristobulus I (104–103 BCE). Following the Hasmonean conquest, there was a significant Jewish influx into the area. Sites includingYodfat,Meiron,Sepphoris,Shikhin,Qana,Bersabe,Zalmon, Mimlah,Migdal,Arbel, Kefar Hittaya, and Beth Ma'on have archeological-chronological evidence for this settlement wave.[13]
Josephus, who based his account onTimagenes of Alexandria, claimed that Aristobulus I had forcibly converted theItureans to Judaism while annexing a portion of their territory. Schürer believed this information to be accurate and came to the conclusion that the "Jewish" Galilee of Jesus' day was actually inhabited by the offspring of those same Iturean converts. Other scholars have suggested that the Itureans underwent a voluntary conversion to Judaism in the Upper Galilee, or at the very least in the Eastern Upper Galilee. However, archeological information does not support either proposal, as Iturean material culture has been identified clearly in the northern Golan Heights and Mount Hermon, and not in the Galilee, and it is clear that this area remained outside Hasmonean borders.[13]
Roman period
In the early Roman period, Galilee was predominantly Jewish. Archaeological evidence from multiple sites reveals Jewish customs, including the use oflimestone vessels,ritual baths forpurity, and secondary burial practices.[14] A significant wave of Jewish settlement arrived in the region following theRoman conquest of 63 BCE.[13] Large towns such asKefar Hananya,Parod,Ravid, Mashkaneh, Sabban, andTiberias were established by the end of the first century BCE or the start of the first century CE.[13] By the end of the first century CE, the Galilee was dotted with small towns and villages. While Josephus writes there were 204 small towns, modern scholars consider this an exaggeration.
Galilee's economy under Roman rule thrived on a combination of agriculture, fishing, and specialized crafts. Excavations in villages like Nazareth have revealed extensive agricultural infrastructure, including numerous olive presses and granaries.[14]Olive was extensively grown in parts of Upper Galilee.[15] Many towns and villages, particularly those around the Sea of Galilee benefited from both fertile land and a thriving fishing industry.[14] InTarichaea (Magdala), salted, dried, and pickled fish were significant export goods.[14][15] Galilee also had specialized production centers.[14]Shihin, near Sepphoris, produced most of the region's storage jars.Kefar Hananya in Upper Galilee manufactured various tableware forms, supplying markets across Galilee, the Golan Heights, the Decapolis, coastal areas, and the Beth Shean Valley.[14]
Josephus describes the Jewish population of Galilee as being nationalist and hostile to Jewish city-dwellers, making them the first target for the Romans during theJewish-Roman wars.Bargil Pixner believes they descended from aDavidic Jewish clan fromBabylon.[11] But according to archaeological and literary evidence, upper and lower Galilee were 'very much in constant touch with the gentile, Greek-speaking cities that surrounded them.' Many Galileans were bilingual and made daily contacts with Jerusalem and gentiles around the Roman territory.[16]
Markus Cromhout states that while Galileans, Judeans and diasporic Judeans were all Jewish, the Galileans had their unique social, political and economic matrix. In terms of ethnicity, Galileans were ethnic Judeans, which generally saw themselves also as Israelites, but could be also identified with localized characteristics, such as Sepphorean.[17] Others argue that Galileans and Judeans were distinct people groups. Outsiders generally conflated them due to Hellenistic-Roman culture, which grouped all diverse groups in Palestine and their related diasporas as "Judean".[18]
In 4 BCE, a rebel named Judah plundered Galilee's largest city,Sepphoris. According to Josephus, the Syrian governorPublius Quinctilius Varus responded by sacking Sepphoris and selling the population into slavery, but the region's archaeology lacks evidence of such destruction.[20][21] After the death ofHerod the Great that same year, his sonHerod Antipas was appointed astetrarch of Galilee by the Roman emperorAugustus. Galilee remained a Romanclient state and Antipas paid tribute to theRoman Empire in exchange for Roman protection.[19]
The Romans did not station troops in Galilee, but threatened to retaliate against anyone who attacked it. As long as he continued to pay tribute, Antipas was permitted to govern however he wished[19] and was permitted to mint his own coinage. Antipas was relatively observant of Jewish laws and customs. Although his palace was decorated with animal carvings, which many Jews regarded as a transgression against the law prohibiting idols, his coins bore only agricultural designs, which his subjects deemed acceptable.[citation needed]
In general, Antipas was a capable ruler. Josephus does not record any instance of his use of force to put down an uprising and he had a long, prosperous reign. However, many Jews probably resented him as not sufficiently devout.[19] Antipas rebuilt the city of Sepphoris,[21] and in either 18 CE or 19 CE, he founded the new city ofTiberias. These two cities became Galilee's largest cultural centers.[19] They were the main centers of Greco-Roman influence, but were still predominantly Jewish. A massive gap existed between the rich and poor,[21] but lack of uprisings suggest that taxes were not exorbitantly high and that most Galileans did not feel their livelihoods were being threatened.[19]
Late in his reign, Antipas married his half-nieceHerodias, who was already married to one of her other uncles. His wife, whom he divorced, fled to her fatherAretas, an Arab king, who invaded Galilee and defeated Antipas's troops before withdrawing. Both Josephus and theGospel of Mark[22] record that the itinerant preacherJohn the Baptist criticized Antipas over his marriage, and Antipas consequently had himimprisoned and then beheaded.[19] In around 39 CE, at the urging ofHerodias, Antipas went to Rome to request that he be elevated from the status of tetrarch to the status of king. The Romans found him guilty of storing arms, so he was removed from power and exiled, ending his forty-three-year reign. During theGreat Revolt (66–73 CE), a Jewish mob destroyed Herod Antipas's palace.[19]
Overall, Galilee under Antipas's rule was marked by significant demographic instability. Diseases like malaria were rampant, internal migration between urban and rural areas were frequent and women generally gave birth at young ages while married to older men. Birth control, includinginfanticide, was not practiced. Many young men, especially marginal villagers, migrated to urban areas to find wives or alternatively, employment. Finding wives was presumed to be competitive since widows often refused to marry past the age of 30 compared to widowers. According to Jonathan L. Reed, this can provide insight on the tropes of New Testament literature, such as miraculous healings and the itinerant lifestyle of Jesus and his disciples.[23]
In 66 CE, during theGreat Jewish Revolt, Josephus was appointed by theJerusalem provisional government to command Galilee. The region experienced internal conflicts among cities such as Sepphoris and Tiberias, with factions opposing Josephus's authority and warring for control. Sepphoris and other strong cities attempted to remain neutral by maintaining alliances with Rome. Despite opposition, Josephus managed to secure internal peace and fortified nineteen cities in preparation for the Roman invasion; nearly half of them were uncovered by archaeologists. In 67 CE, the Roman army, led by generalVespasian, arrived in Acre. Josephus's account,The Jewish War, details the Romancampaign in Galilee, starting with the siege and capture of Gabara, followed by Jotapata (where Josephus was captured), and continuing with Tiberias, Taricheae, Gamala, Tabor, and ending in Gischala. While not all of Galilee was devastated, the conquered cities were razed, and many inhabitants were sold into slavery.[9]
Jesus and themiraculous catch of fish, in the Sea of Galilee. Many people in Roman-era Galilee were fishermen.[21]
Late Roman period
Judaism reached its political and cultural zenith in the Galilee during the late second and early third century CE. According to rabbinic sources,Judah ha-Nasi's political leadership was at its strongest in relation to the Jewish community inSyria Palaestina, the Diaspora, and the Roman Authorities during this time. Judah's redaction of theMishnah at this time period represented the peak of intense cultural activity. Archaeological surveys in the Galilee have revealed that the region experienced its height of thriving settlement during this time.[13]
According to medieval Hebrew legend,Shimon bar Yochai, one of the most famed of all thetannaim, wrote theZohar while living in Galilee.[24]
Byzantine period
After the completion of the Mishnah, which marked the conclusion of thetannaitic era, came the period of theamoraim. TheJerusalem Talmud, the principal work of the amoraim in Palestine, is primarily discussions and interpretations of the Mishnah, and according to academic research, most of it was edited inTiberias. The vast majority of theamoraim named there, as well as the majority of the settlements or place names referenced, were Galileans.[13] By the middle of the fourth century, the Jerusalem Talmud's compilation and editing processes abruptly came to a halt, as Talmudic scholar Yaacov Sussmann put it: "The development of the Jerusalem Talmud seems to have abruptly ceased, as if severed by a sharp and sudden blade".[25][13]
Demographically, during the fourth century the entire region witnessed a significant population decrease, resulting in the abandonment of several notable settlements.[13] In approximately 320 CE, Christian bishopEpiphanius reported that all the major cities and villages in Galilee were entirely Jewish.[26] During theByzantine period, however, Galilee's Jewish population experienced a decline, while Christian settlement grew. Archaeological data indicates that in the third and fourth centuries, several Jewish sites were abandoned, and some Christian villages were established on or near these deserted locations. Certain settlements, such asRama,Magdala,Kafr Kanna,Daburiyya, andIksal, which were materially Jewish during the Roman period, were now predominantly inhabited by Christians or had a significant Christian population. Safrai and Liebner argue that the decline of the Jewish population and the expansion of the Christian population in the region were separate events that happened at different times. Throughout this period, religious segregation between Christian and Jewish villages endured, with few exceptions likeCapernaum and perhapsNazareth, due to their sanctity in Christian tradition.[13]
Leibner has proposed tying the end of the Palestinian Amoraic period, the impact of historical occurrences like theChristianization of the Roman Empire and of Palestine, the apparent cessation of activities of at least some of thebatei midrash and the transformation of the Galilee from a densely populated Jewish area to a collection of communities surrounded by non-Jewish areas to this demographic crisis. He assumed that Christian population in Galilee was not composed of Jews who converted to Christianity. This is supported by the fact that trustworthy historical records, which mention Jewish conversion to Christianity in Byzantine Palestine, refer to individual cases rather than entire villages, unlike the records from the western part of the empire.[13]
Eastern Galilee retained a Jewish majority until at least the seventh century.[27] Over time, this area experienced a decline in population due to raids by nomadic groups and insufficient protection from the central government.[28]
Early Muslim and Crusader periods
After theMuslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the Galilee formed part ofJund al-Urdunn (the military district of Jordan), itself part ofBilad al-Sham (Islamic Syria). Its major towns were Tiberias the capital of the district,Qadas,Beisan,Acre,Saffuriya, andKabul.[29] During the early Islamic period, Galilee underwent a process ofArabization andIslamization, similar to other areas in the region. UnderUmayyad rule, Islamic rule was gradually consolidated in newly conquered territories, and some Muslims settled in the villages, establishing residency there.[30] Later, underAbbasid rule, geographeral-Ya'qubi (d. 891), who referred to the region as'Jabal al-Jalil', noted that its inhabitants were Arabs from theAmila tribe.[31]
The Islamization process in which began with the settlement of nomadic tribes. Michael Ehrlich suggests that during the Early Islamic period, the majority of people in the Western Galilee and Lower Galilee likely converted to Islam, while in the Eastern Galilee, the Islamization process continued for a more extended period, lasting until theMamluk period.[32] According to Moshe Gil, Jews in rural Galilean areas frequently succeeded in upholding community life during and for decades after the Umayyad period. He comes to the conclusion that several Galilean Jewish communities "retained their ancient character".[30]
TheShiaFatimids conquered the region in the 10th century; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliphal-Hakim, formed theDruze religion, centered inMount Lebanon and partially in the Galilee. During theCrusades, Galilee was organized into thePrincipality of Galilee, one of the most important Crusader seigneuries.[citation needed] According to Moshe Gil, during the periods ofFatimid andCrusader rule, the rural Jewish population of Galilee experienced a gradual decline and flight. He supports his argument by referring to 11th-centuryCairo Geniza documents related to transactions inRamla and other areas in central Palestine, where Jews claimed to have ancestral ties to places likeGush Halav,Dalton, or'Amuqa, suggesting that Jewish flight from Galilee occurred during that time.[30]
Ayyubid and Mamluk periods
Sunni Muslims began to immigrate toSafed and its surroundings starting in theAyyubid period, and in particular during theMamluk period. These immigrants includedSufi preachers who were crucial in converting the locals to Islam in Safed's rural area. Jewish immigrants did, however, come to the area in waves, during the period of the destruction of Tyre and Acre in 1291 and particularly after theJewish expulsion from Spain in 1492. These immigrants, who included scholars and other urban elites, turned the Jewish community from a rural community into an urban hub which exerted its influence well beyond the regional boundaries of Upper Galilee.[32]
Ottoman era
Safed
During Early Ottoman era, the Galilee was governed as theSafad Sanjak, initially part of the larger administrative unit ofDamascus Eyalet (1549–1660) and later as part ofSidon Eyalet (1660–1864). During the 18th century, the administrative division of Galilee was renamed toAcre Sanjak, and the Eyalet itself became centered in Acre, factually becoming the Acre Eyalet between 1775 and 1841.
The Jewish population of Galilee increased significantly followingtheir expulsion from Spain and welcome from theOttoman Empire. The community for a time madeSafed an international center of cloth weaving and manufacturing, as well as a key site for Jewish learning.[33] Today it remains one of Judaism'sfour holy cities and a center forkabbalah.
In the mid-17th century Galilee and Mount Lebanon became the scene of theDruze power struggle, which came in parallel with much destruction in the region and decline of major cities.
In the mid-18th century, Galilee was caught up in a struggle between theArab leaderZahir al-Umar and theOttoman authorities who were centred inDamascus. Zahir ruled Galilee for 25 years until Ottoman loyalistJezzar Pasha conquered the region in 1775.
In 1831, the Galilee, a part ofOttoman Syria, switched hands from Ottomans toIbrahim Pasha of Egypt until 1840. During this period, aggressive social and politic policies were introduced, which led to a violent1834 Arab revolt. In the process of this revolt the Jewish community ofSafed was greatly reduced, in the event ofSafed Plunder by the rebels. The Arab rebels were subsequently defeated by the Egyptian troops, though in 1838, the Druze of Galilee led anotheruprising. In 1834 and1837, major earthquakes leveled most of the towns, resulting in great loss of life.
The territory of the OttomanBeirut Vilayet, encompassing the Galilee
In the early 20th century, Galilee remained part ofAcre Sanjak of Ottoman Syria. It was administered as the southernmost territory of theBeirut Vilayet.
British administration
Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire inWorld War I, and theArmistice of Mudros, it came under British rule, as part of theOccupied Enemy Territory Administration. Shortly after, in 1920, the region was included in the British Mandate territory, officially a part of Mandatory Palestine from 1923.
Modern Israeli period
After the1948 Arab–Israeli war, nearly the whole of Galilee came under Israel's control. A large portion of the population fled or was forced to leave, leaving dozens of entire villages empty; however, a largeIsraeli Arab community remained based in and near the cities of Nazareth,Acre,Tamra,Sakhnin, andShefa-'Amr, due to some extent to a successful rapprochement with the Druze. Thekibbutzim around theSea of Galilee were sometimes shelled by theSyrian army's artillery until Israel seized WesternGolan Heights in the 1967Six-Day War.
During the 1970s and the early 1980s, thePalestine Liberation Organization (PLO)launched multiple attacks on towns and villages of the Upper and Western Galilee fromLebanon. This came in parallel to the general destabilization ofSouthern Lebanon, which became a scene of fierce sectarian fighting which deteriorated into theLebanese Civil War. On the course of the war, Israel initiatedOperation Litani (1979) andOperation Peace For Galilee (1982) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in Lebanon, protecting the citizens of the Galilee and supporting allied Christian Lebanese militias. Israel took over much of southern Lebanon in support of Christian Lebanese militias until 1985, when it withdrew to anarrow security buffer zone.
The2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict was characterized by round-the-clock Katyusha rocket attacks (with a greatly extended range) by Hezbollah on the whole of Galilee, with long-range, ground-launched missiles hitting as far south as theSharon Plain,Jezreel Valley, andJordan Valley below the Sea of Galilee.
In 2006, there were 1.2 million residents in Galilee, of whom 47% were Jewish.[34] TheJewish Agency has attempted toincrease the Jewish population in this area,[35] but the non-Jewish population also has a high growth rate.[34]
The largest cities in the region are Acre, Nahariya, Nazareth, Safed,Karmiel,Shaghur,Shefa-'Amr,Afula, and Tiberias.[36] The port city ofHaifa serves as a commercial center for the whole region.
Because of its hilly terrain, most of the people in the Galilee live in small villages connected by relatively few roads.[37] A railroad runs south fromNahariya along theMediterranean coast, and afork to the east was opened in 2016. The main sources of livelihood throughout the area are agriculture and tourism.Industrial parks are being developed, bringing further employment opportunities to the local population which includes many recent immigrants. The Israeli government is contributing funding to the private initiative, the Galilee Finance Facility, organised by theMilken Institute and Koret Economic Development Fund.[38]
The Galilee is home to a largeArab population,[39][40] with a Muslim majority and two smaller populations, ofDruze andArab Christians, of comparable sizes. Both Israeli Druze and Christians have their majorities in the Galilee.[41][42] Other notable minorities are the Bedouin, theMaronites and theCircassians.
The north-central portion of the Galilee is also known as Central Galilee, stretching from the border withLebanon to the northern edge of the Jezreel Valley. It includes the cities of Nazareth and Sakhnin, has an Arab majority of 75%, with most of the Jewish population living in hilltop cities likeUpper Nazareth. The northern half of the central Lower Galilee, surroundingKarmiel andSakhnin, is known as the "Heart of the Galilee".
The eastern Galilee is nearly 100% Jewish. This part includes theFinger of the Galilee, the Jordan River Valley, and the shores the Sea of Galilee, and contains two of Judaism'sFour Holy Cities.
The southern part of the Galilee, including Jezreel Valley, and theGilboa region are nearly 100% Jewish, with a few small Arab villages near theWest Bank border. About 80% of the population of the Western Galilee is Jewish, all the way up to the Lebanese border. Jews form a small majority in the mountainousUpper Galilee, with a significant minority Arab population, mainly Druze and Christians.
As of 2011, the Galilee is attracting significant internal migration ofHaredi Jews, who are increasingly moving to the Galilee and Negev as an answer to rising housing prices in central Israel.[43]
A popular hiking trail known as theyam leyam, or sea-to-sea, starts hikers at the Mediterranean. They then hike through the Galilee mountains, Tabor, Neria, and Meron, until their final destination, the Kinneret (Sea of Galilee).
In April 2011, Israel unveiled theJesus Trail, a 40-mile (60-km)hiking trail in the Galilee for Christian pilgrims. The trail includes a network of footpaths, roads, and bicycle paths linking sites central to the lives of Jesus and his disciples, includingTabgha, the traditional site of Jesus's miracle of the loaves and fishes, and theMount of Beatitudes, where he delivered his Sermon on the Mount. It ends atCapernaum on the shores of the Sea of Galilee, where Jesus espoused his teachings.[44]
Many kibbutzim andmoshav families operateZimmerim, from the Yiddish word for 'room', צימער, from 'Zimmer' in German, with the Hebrew ending for plural, -im; the local term for aBed and breakfast. Numerous festivals are held throughout the year, especially in the autumn and spring holiday seasons. These include the Acre (Acco) Festival of Alternative Theater,[45] the olive harvest festival, music festivals featuring Anglo-American folk,klezmer, Renaissance, andchamber music, andKarmiel Dance Festival.
Cuisine
The cuisine of the Galilee is very diverse. The meals are lighter than in the central and southern regions. Dairy products are heavily consumed, especially the Safed cheese that originated in the mountains of theUpper Galilee. Herbs like thyme, mint, parsley, basil, and rosemary are very common with everything, including dips, meat, fish, stews and cheese. In the eastern part of the Galilee, there is freshwater fish as much as meat, especially theTilapia that lives in the Sea of Galilee, Jordan river, and other streams in the region.
Fish is filled with thyme and grilled with rosemary to flavor, or stuffed with oregano leaves, then topped with parsley and served with lemon to squash. This technique exists in other parts of the country including the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. A specialty of the region is a baked Tilapia flavored with celery, mint and a lot of lemon juice. Baked fish with tahini is also common in Tiberias. The coastal Galileans prefer to replace the tahini with yogurt and addsumac on top.
The Galilee is famous for its olives, pomegranates, wine and especially itsLabneh w'Za'atar which is served with pita bread, meat stews with wine, pomegranates and herbs such as akub, parsley,khalmit, mint, fennel, etc. are common. Galileankubba is usually flavored with cumin, cinnamon, cardamom, concentratedpomegranate juice, onion, parsley and pine nuts and served as meze with tahini dip.
Kebabs are made almost in the same way, with sumac replacing cardamom and with carob sometimes replacing the pomegranate juice. Because of its climate, beef has become more popular than lamb, although both are still eaten there. Dates are popular in the tropical climate of the Eastern Galilee.
Subregions
The definition of Galilee varies depending on the period, author, and point of view (geological, geographical, administrative). Ancient Galilee consisted in broad terms of the Upper and Lower Galilee. Today the northwestern part of the Upper Galilee is in Southern Lebanon, with the rest being in Israel. The Israeli Galilee is often divided into these subregions, which often overlap:
Upper Galilee extends from the Beit HaKerem Valley northwards into southern Lebanon. Its eastern border is theHula Valley and the Sea of Galilee separating it from the Golan Heights. To the west it reaches to the Coastal Plain which separates it from the Mediterranean.
The following subregions are sometimes regarded, from different points of view, as distinct from the Galilee, for instance the entire Jordan Valley including the Sea of Galilee and its continuation to the south as one geological and geographical unit, and the Jezreel, Harod, and Beit She'an valleys as "the northern valleys".
TheWestern Galilee is a modern Israeli term, which in its minimal definition refers to the coastal plain just west of the Upper Galilee, also known as Plain of Asher or Plain of the Galilee, which stretches from north of Acre toRosh HaNikra on theIsrael-Lebanon border, and in the common broad definition adds the western part of Upper Galilee, and usually the northwestern part of Lower Galilee as well, corresponding more or less to Acre sub-district or theNorthern District.
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Fiensy, David A., "Population, Architecture, and Economy in Lower Galilean Villages and Towns in the First Century AD: A Brief Survey," in John D. Wineland, Mark Ziese, James Riley Estep Jr. (eds),My Father's World: Celebrating the Life of Reuben G. Bullard (Eugene (OR), Wipf & Stock, 2011), 101–19.
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