GeneralGabriele D'Annunzio, Prince of MontenevosoOMSCMGMVM (UK:/dæˈnʊntsioʊ/,[1]US:/dɑːˈnuːn-/;[2]Italian:[ɡabriˈɛːledanˈnuntsjo]; 12 March 1863 – 1 March 1938), sometimes writtend'Annunzio as he used to sign himself,[3] was an Italian poet, playwright, orator, journalist, aristocrat, andRoyal Italian Army officer duringWorld War I. He occupied a prominent place inItalian literature from 1889 to 1910 and in its political life from 1914 to 1924. He was often referred to by the epithetsil Vate ("the Poet"; the Italianvate directly stems from Latinvates, and its meaning is a poet with special emphasis on prophetic, inspiring, or divining qualities) andil Profeta ("the Prophet").[4]
D'Annunzio was born in the township ofPescara, in the modern-dayItalian region ofAbruzzo, the son of a wealthylandowner and mayor of the town, Francesco Paolo Rapagnetta D'Annunzio (1838–1893) and his wife Luisa de Benedictis (1839–1917). His father was born Francesco Paolo Rapagnetta, the sixth child of Camillo Rapagnetta, a shoemaker, and Rita Olimpia Lolli. At the age of 13, he was adopted by a sister of his mother Rita, Anna Lolli, who had remarried, after the death of her first husband, a wealthy merchant and shipowner, Antonio D'Annunzio.[9][10] D'Annunzio's paternal grandfather, Camillo Rapagnetta (1795–1866) registered his birth. Legend has it that D'Annunzio was initiallybaptised Gaetano and given the name ofGabriele later in childhood because of his angelic looks;[11] this story is purely fictitious, as can be seen by D'Annunzio's birth certificate and baptismal records, which recordGabriele as both his birth and baptismal name.[12][nb 1]
D'Annunzio's precocious talent was recognised early in life, and he was sent to school at the Liceo Cicognini inPrato, Tuscany. He published his first poems – a small volume of verses calledPrimo Vere – in 1879, at the age of sixteen and while still at school. Influenced byGiosuè Carducci'sOdi barbare, he placed some almost brutal imitations ofLorenzo Stecchetti, the fashionable poet ofPostuma, side by side with translations from the Latin. His verse was so distinguished that the literary critic Giuseppe Chiarini, upon reading it, brought the unknown youth before the public in an enthusiastic article.[13][14]
In 1881, D'Annunzio entered theUniversity of Rome La Sapienza, where he became a member of various literary groups, includingCronaca Bizantina, and wrote articles and criticism for local newspapers. In those university years, he started to promoteItalian irredentism.[citation needed]
D'Annunzio publishedCanto novo (1882),Terra vergine (1882),L'intermezzo di rime (1883),Il libro delle vergini (1884) and the greater part of the short stories that were afterwards collected under the general title ofSan Pantaleone (1886).Canto novo contains poems full of pulsating youth and the promise of power, some descriptive of the sea and some of the Abruzzese landscape, commented on and completed in prose byTerra vergine, the latter a collection of short stories dealing in radiant language with the peasant life of the author's native province.Intermezzo di rime is the beginning of D'Annunzio's second and characteristic manner. His conception of style was new, and he chose to express all the most subtle vibrations of voluptuous life. Both style and contents began to startle his critics; some who had greeted him as anenfant prodige rejected him as a perverter of public morals, whilst others hailed him as one bringing a breath of fresh air and an impulse of new vitality into the somewhat prim, lifeless work hitherto produced.[15]
Meanwhile, the review of D'Annunzio publisher Angelo Sommaruga perished in the midst of scandal, and his group of young authors found itself dispersed. Some entered the teaching career and were lost to literature, others threw themselves into journalism.[15] D'Annunzio took this latter course, and joined the staff of theTribuna, under the pseudonym of "Duca Minimo". Here he wroteIl libro d'Isotta (1886), a love poem, in which for the first time he drew inspiration adapted to modern sentiments and passions from the rich colours of the Renaissance.[15]Il libro d'Isotta is also interesting because in it one can find most of the germs of his future work, just as inIntermezzo melico and in certain ballads and sonnets one can find descriptions and emotions which later went to form the aesthetic contents ofIl piacere,Il trionfo della morte andElegie romane (1892).[15]
D'Annunzio's first novelIl Piacere (1889, translated into English asThe Child of Pleasure) was followed in 1891 byGiovanni Episcopo, and in 1892 byL'innocente (The Intruder). These three novels made a profound impression.L'innocente, admirably translated into French by Georges Herelle, brought its author the notice and applause of foreign critics. His next work,Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death) (1894), was followed soon byLe vergini delle rocce (The Maidens of the Rocks) (1896) andIl fuoco (The Flame of Life) (1900); the latter is in its descriptions of Venice perhaps the most ardent glorification of a city existing in any language.[15]
D'Annunzio in 1903
D'Annunzio's poetic work of this period, in most respects his finest, is represented byIl Poema Paradisiaco (1893), theOdi navali (1893), a superb attempt at civic poetry, andLaudi (1900).[15] A later phase of D'Annunzio's work is his dramatic production, represented byIl sogno di un mattino di primavera (1897), a lyrical fantasia in one act, and hisCittà Morta (The Dead City) (1898), written forSarah Bernhardt. In 1898 he wrote hisSogno di un pomeriggio d'autunno andLa Gioconda; in the succeeding yearLa gloria, an attempt at contemporary political tragedy which met with no success, probably because of the audacity of the personal and political allusions in some of its scenes; and thenFrancesca da Rimini (1901), based on an episode fromDante Alighieri'sInferno; a perfect reconstruction of medieval atmosphere and emotion, magnificent in style, and declared by an authoritative Italian critic – Edoardo Boutet – to be the first real, if imperfect, tragedy ever given to the Italian theatre.[15] It was adapted by Tito Ricordi to become the libretto for the operaFrancesca da Rimini byRiccardo Zandonai, which premiered in 1914.[citation needed]
In 1883, D'Annunzio marriedMaria Hardouin di Gallese, and had three sons, Mario (1884–1964), Gabriele Maria "Gabriellino" (1886–1945) and Ugo Veniero (1887–1945), but the marriage ended in 1891. In 1894, he began a love affair with the actressEleonora Duse which became acause célèbre.[16] He provided leading roles for her in his plays of the time such asLa città morta (1898) andFrancesca da Rimini (1901), but the tempestuous relationship finally ended in 1910. After meetingthe Marchesa Luisa Casati in 1903, he began a lifelong turbulent on again-off again affair with Luisa, that lasted until a few years before his death.[17]
D'Annunzio in a photo before 1938
In 1897, D'Annunzio was elected to theChamber of Deputies for a three-year term, where he sat as an independent. By 1910, his daredevil lifestyle had forced him into debt, and he fled to France to escape his creditors. There he collaborated with composerClaude Debussy on a musical play,Le Martyre de saint Sébastien (The Martyrdom ofSt Sebastian), 1911, written forIda Rubinstein. TheHoly See reacted by placing all of his works in theIndex of Forbidden Books. The work was not successful as a play, but it has been recorded in adapted versions several times, notably byPierre Monteux (in French),Leonard Bernstein (songs in French, dialogue in English), andMichael Tilson Thomas (in French). In 1912 and 1913, D'Annunzio worked with opera composerPietro Mascagni, writing the libretto for the operaParisina, staying sometimes in a house rented by the composer in Bellevue, near Paris. D'Annunzio insisted that the entire, long libretto should be set to music, which eventually meant that the work was too long for audiences of the time, and required the entire last act to be removed.[citation needed]
In 1901, D'Annunzio andEttore Ferrari, theGrand Master of theGrand Orient of Italy, founded the Università Popolare di Milano (Popular University ofMilan), located in viaUgo Foscolo. D'Annunzio held the inaugural speech and subsequently became an associated professor and a lecturer in the same institution.[18] In 1902, D'Annunzio visitedIstria, an "irredent land", then underAustro-Hungarian rule. He was welcomed inPisino by a "pouring of flowers" let down from the windows of the crowded houses,[19] visited the Italian gymnasium and was paid a homage designed by the future wife ofFrancesco Salata.[20] In a letter addressed to the same Italian historian, D'Annunzio complimented with him about the civility of the Italian population living there, praising the struggle of the "great, manifold, transfiguring Latin civilization against the barbaric abuse".[21][22]
D'Annunzio was a Grand Master of theGrand Lodge of Italy, aScottish Rite that in 1908 had separated from the Grand Orient of Italy.[23] Subsequently, he adhered to the mystic and philosophic movimento known asMartinism,[24] collaborating inFiume with other 33rd degree Scottish Rite Freemasons and occultists likeAlceste De Ambris,[25]Sante Ceccherini,[26] and Marco Egidio Allegri. The Masonic initiation of D'Annunzio his testified by the choice of Masonic symbols for the flag of the Regence of Carnaro like theOuroboros and the seven stars of theUrsa Major.[27][28][29]
Italian translation of the propaganda leaflet which D'Annunzio threw from his aeroplane during his flight above Vienna
After the start ofWorld War I, D'Annunzio returned to Italy and made public speeches in favor of Italy's entry on the side of theTriple Entente. Since taking a flight withWilbur Wright in 1908, D'Annunzio had been interested in aviation. With the war beginning he volunteered and achieved further celebrity as afighter pilot, losing the sight of an eye in a flying accident.[citation needed]
D'Annunzio (left) with a fellow officer
In February 1918, he took part in a daring, if militarily irrelevant,raid on the harbour ofBakar (known in Italy asLa beffa di Buccari, lit.the Bakar Mockery), helping to raise the spirits of the Italian public, still battered by theCaporetto disaster. On 9 August 1918, as commander of the 87th fighter squadron "La Serenissima", he organized one of the great feats of the war, leading nine planes in a 700-mile round trip to drop propaganda leaflets onVienna. This is called in Italian "il Volo su Vienna", "theFlight over Vienna".[30]
The war strengthened D'Annunzio'sultranationalist andItalian irredentist views, and he campaigned widely for Italy to assume a role alongside her wartimeallies as a first-rate European power. Angered by the proposed handing over of the city ofFiume (nowRijeka in Croatia) whose population, when the suburbs are included, was mostly Italian, at theParis Peace Conference, on 12 September 1919, D'Annunzio led 186 grenadiers of theRoyal Italian Army's2nd Grenadiers Regiment's I Battalion fromRonchi to Fiume to seize the city. Within days troops from other army units joined D'Annunzio in Fiume, who soon commanded a force of 2,500 troops of former Royal Italian Army troops, Italian nationalists, and World War I veterans of theItalian front.[31] D'Annunzio then forced theinter-Allied (American, British and French) occupying forces to withdraw.[32] The plotters sought to have Italy annex Fiume but were denied. Instead, Italy initiated a blockade of Fiume while demanding that the plotters surrender.[citation needed]
Residents ofFiume cheering the arrival ofGabriele D'Annunzio and hisLegionari in September 1919, when Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants
D'Annunzio then declared Fiume an independent state, theItalian Regency of Carnaro; theCharter of Carnaro foreshadowed much of the later Italian Fascist system, with himself as "Duce" (leader). Some elements of theRoyal Italian Navy, such as the destroyerEspero joined up with D'Annunzio's local forces.[33] He attempted to organize an alternative to theLeague of Nations for (selected) oppressed nations of the world (such as the Irish, whom D'Annunzio attempted to arm in 1920),[34] and sought to make alliances with variousseparatist groups throughout theBalkans (especially groups of Italians, though also someSlavic andAlbanian groups),[35] although without much success. D'Annunzio ignored theTreaty of Rapallo and declared war on Italy itself, only finally surrendering the city on 29 December 1920 after a bombardment by the Italian navy and five days of fighting.[citation needed]
D'Annunzio (near the centre with cane) with some legionaries (components of the Arditi's department of the Italian Royal Army) in Fiume in 1919. Next to D'Annunzio (right) is Arturo Avolio, a lieutenant and the commander of the Arditi's department of Bologna Brigade.
After the Fiume episode, D'Annunzio retired to his home onLake Garda and spent his latter years writing and campaigning. Although D'Annunzio had a strong influence on the ideology ofBenito Mussolini, he never became directly involved in fascist government politics in Italy. In 1922, shortly before themarch on Rome, he waspushed out of a window by an unknown assailant, or perhaps simply slipped and fell out himself while intoxicated. He survived but was badly injured, and recovered only after Mussolini had been appointed Prime Minister.[citation needed]
In 1924, D'Annunzio was ennobled by KingVictor Emmanuel III and given the hereditary title of Prince ofMontenevoso (Italian:Principe di Montenevoso). In 1937 he was made president of theRoyal Academy of Italy. D'Annunzio died in 1938 of a stroke, at his home inGardone Riviera. He was given a state funeral by Mussolini and was interred in a magnificent tomb constructed of white marble atIl Vittoriale degli Italiani. His son,Gabriellino D'Annunzio, became a film director. His 1921 filmThe Ship was based on a novel by his father. In 1924, he co-directed the historical epicQuo Vadis, an expensive failure, before retiring from filmmaking.[citation needed]
Although D'Annunzio initially briefly associated himself with theHistorical Right and his political views often evolved, D'Annunzio later associated himself with theHistorical Far Left,socialism, andprogressivism.[4] D'Annunzio is also often seen within the context ofproto-fascism as a precursor of the ideals and techniques ofItalian fascism. His political ideals emerged in Fiume when he coauthored a constitution withAlceste de Ambris, asyndicalist, theCharter of Carnaro. De Ambris provided the legal and political framework, to which D'Annunzio added his skills as a poet. De Ambris was the leader of a group of Italian seamen who had mutinied and then given their vessel to the service of D'Annunzio. The constitution established acorporatist state, with nine corporations to represent the different sectors of the economy (workers, employers, and professionals), and a tenth (D'Annunzio's invention) to represent the perceived superior human beings, the heroes, poets, prophets, and supermen. The Charter of Carnaro also declared that music was the fundamental principle of the state.[citation needed] Others disagree and cite his initial opposition tofascism, as well as his influence on Italian socialists andanti-fascists.[4]
D'Annunzio, thede facto dictator of Fiume, maintained control through what has been described as a "new and dangerously potent politics of spectacle".[36] It was this culture of dictatorship thatBenito Mussolini imitated and learned from D'Annunzio. D'Annunzio has been described as theJohn the Baptist of Italian fascism,[8] as virtually the entire ritual of Fascism was invented by D'Annunzio during his occupation of Fiume and his leadership of the Italian Regency of Carnaro.[37] These included the balcony address, theRoman salute, the cries of "Eia, eia, eia!Alala!" taken fromAchilles's cry in theIliad, the dramatic and rhetorical dialogue with the crowd, the use of religious symbols in new secular settings,[8] as well as blackshirted followers (theArditi) with their disciplined, bestial responses and strongarm repression of dissent.[38] He was even said to have originated the practice of forcibly dosing opponents with large amounts ofcastor oil, a very effective laxative, to humiliate, disable, or kill them, a practice that became a common tool of Mussolini'sBlackshirts.[39][40][41]
First and last sheet of D'Annunzio's letter to Mussolini, 15 February 1920
In his essay "Mussolini and The Cult of the Leader", John Whittam wrote:[42]
This famous poet, novelist and war hero was a self-proclaimed Superman. He was the outstanding interventionist in May 1915 and his dramatic exploits during the war won him national and international acclaim. In September 1919 he gathered together his 'legions' and captured the disputed seaport of Fiume. He held it for over a year and it was he who popularised the black shirts, the balcony speeches, the promulgation of ambitious charters and the entire choreography of street parades and ceremonies. He even planned a march on Rome. One historian had rightly described him as the 'First Duce' and Mussolini must have heaved a sigh of relief when he was driven from Fiume in December 1920 and his followers were dispersed. But he remained a threat to Mussolini and in 1921 Fascists like Balbo seriously considered turning to him for leadership.
In contrast, Mussolini vacillated from left to right at this time. Although Mussolini's fascism was heavily influenced by the Charter of Carnaro, the constitution for Fiume written byAlceste De Ambris and D'Annunzio, neither wanted to play an active part in the new movement, both refusing when asked by Fascist supporters to run in the elections of 15 May 1921. Before theMarch on Rome, De Ambris even went so far as to depict the Italian fascist movement as "a filthy pawn inMister Giolitti's game of chess, and made out of the least dignified section of thebourgeoisie".[citation needed]
D'Annunzio was seriously injured when he fell out of a window on 13 August 1922; subsequently the planned "meeting for national pacification" withFrancesco Saverio Nitti and Mussolini was cancelled. The incident was never explained and is considered by some historians an attempt to murder him, motivated by his popularity. Despite D'Annunzio's retreat from active public life after this event, Mussolini still found it necessary to regularly dole out funds to D'Annunzio as a bribe for not re-entering the political arena. When asked about this by a close friend, Mussolini purportedly stated: "When you have a rotten tooth you have two possibilities open to you: either you pull the tooth or you fill it with gold. With D'Annunzio I have chosen for the latter treatment."[43]
D'Annunzio kept attempting to intervene in politics almost until his death in 1938. He wrote to Mussolini in 1933 to try to convince him not to ally withAdolf Hitler. In 1934, he tried to disrupt the relationship between Hitler and Mussolini after their first meeting, even writing a satirical pamphlet about Hitler. In September 1937, D'Annunzio met with Mussolini at theVerona train station to try to convince him to leave theAxis powers.[citation needed]
At the height of his success, D'Annunzio was celebrated for the originality, power and decadence of his writing. Although his work had immense impact across Europe, and influenced generations of Italian writers, hisfin de siècle works are now little known, and his literary reputation has always been clouded by nationalistic ideals, and he had his strong detractors. ANew York Times review in 1898 of his novelThe Intruder referred to him as "evil", "entirely selfish and corrupt".[44] Three weeks into its December 1901 run at the Teatro Constanzi in Rome, his tragedyFrancesca da Rimini was banned by the censor on grounds of morality.[45]
A prolific writer, D'Annunzio's novels in Italian includeIl piacere (The Child of Pleasure, 1889),Il trionfo della morte (The Triumph of Death, 1894), andLe vergini delle rocce (The Maidens of the Rocks, 1896). He wrote the screenplay to the feature filmCabiria (1914) based on episodes from theSecond Punic War. D'Annunzio's literary creations were strongly influenced by the FrenchSymbolist school, and contain episodes of striking violence and depictions of abnormal mental states interspersed with gorgeously imagined scenes. One of D'Annunzio's most significant novels, scandalous in its day, isIl fuoco (The Flame of Life) of 1900, in which he portrays himself as theNietzschean Superman (Übermensch) Stelio Effrena, in a fictionalized account of his love affair withEleonora Duse. His short stories showed the influence ofGuy de Maupassant. He was also associated with the Italian noblewomanLuisa Casati, an influence on his novels and one of his mistresses.[citation needed]
D'Annunzio's bookL'armata d'Italia, published by Carabba in 1916
The work of d' Annunzio, although by many of the younger generation injudiciously and extravagantly admired, is almost the most important literary work given to Italy since the days when the great classics welded her varying dialects into a fixed language. The psychological inspiration of his novels has come to him from many sources—French, Russian, Scandinavian, German—and in much of his earlier work there is little fundamental originality.
His creative power is intense and searching, but narrow and personal; his heroes and heroines are little more than one same type monotonously facing a different problem at a different phase of life. But the faultlessness of his style and the wealth of his language have been approached by none of his contemporaries, whom his genius has somewhat paralysed. In his later work [meaning as of 1911], when he begins drawing his inspiration from the traditions of bygone Italy in her glorious centuries, a current of real life seems to run through the veins of his personages. And the lasting merit of D'Annunzio, his real value to the literature of his country, consists precisely in that he opened up the closed mine of its former life as a source of inspiration for the present and of hope for the future, and created a language, neither pompous nor vulgar, drawn from every source and district suited to the requirements of modern thought, yet absolutely classical, borrowed from none, and, independently of the thought it may be used to express, a thing of intrinsic beauty. As his sight became clearer and his purpose strengthened, as exaggerations, affectations, and moods dropped away from his conceptions, his work became more and more typical Latin work, upheld by the ideal of an Italian Renaissance.
In Italy, some of D'Annunzio's poetic works remain popular, most notably his poemLa pioggia nel pineto ("The Rain in the Pinewood"), which exemplifies his linguistic virtuosity as well as the sensuousness of his poetry. His work was part of theliterature event in theart competition at the1912 Summer Olympics.[46]
D'Annunzio's life and work are commemorated in a museum,Il Vittoriale degli Italiani ("The Shrine of the Italian People's Victories"). He planned and developed it himself, adjacent to his villa atGardone Riviera on the southwest bank ofLake Garda, between 1923 and his death. Now a national monument, it is a complex of military museum, library, literary and historical archive, theatre, war memorial andmausoleum. The museum preserves historpedo boatMAS 96 and the SVA-5 aircraft he flew over Vienna. His birthplace is also open to the public as a museum,Birthplace of Gabriele D'Annunzio Museum in Pescara.[citation needed]
Poster by Adolfo De Karolis forAlberto Franchetti's operaLa figlia di Iorio (1906)Pro-Italy messages that D'Annunzio threw from his aeroplane during his 1915 flight above Trieste
La Riscossa (1918), Bestetti e Tumminelli Edizioni d'Arte, first edition of warlike prayers held on the Italian front from November 1917 to May 1918, in No. 16, 171 pages, brochure original xilographed, frontispiece, and trim always engraved on wood by Sartorio
"As an air team leader in the flights of the August offensive, he was able, setting a magnificent example, to make the action coordinated and highly effective. In the battlefield of the sky, opposed by intense fire from every weapon, he dared the limits of human courage, striking the enemy from the lowest altitudes with very audacious persistence."
"Animator of every spirit, transfusing his faith and love into everyone, in a magnificent and superb mission he led a flight of brave men overVienna, affirming in a hitherto unsurpassed way the power of the wings of Italy."
"Volunteer and war-maimed, during three years of bitter struggle, with animating faith, with tireless work, participating in very audacious undertakings, on land, on the sea, in the sky, the high intellect and the tenacious will of the purposes – in harmony of thought and action – entirely dedicated to the sacred ideals of the Fatherland, in the pure dignity of duty and sacrifice."
"As anobserver officer he voluntarily took part in various war missions carried out in enemy territory byseaplanes of theRegia Marine [Royal Navy], always maintaining an exemplary and courageous demeanor and constantly demonstrating cold-blooded and youthful courage even under enemy fire. During a landing he suffered a serious injury to his right eye."
"During the actions from 10 to 12 October and from 1 to 3 November, he was a companion to the soldiers who conquered Veliki and Faiti. Enthusiastic and daring in every act of his, the example given was equal to the word and the effects obtained were effective and complete."
"In land[-based] aircraft, covering a long stretch of open sea, in adverse conditions, he managed, with others, to reach the mouth ofCattaro and hit the naval objectives with great accuracy and effectiveness, returning with all the others to base, despite the inevitable detours in the growing haze."
"An effective promoter, admirable for his faith and courage, a persevering example of military virtue, he voluntarily participated in theBuccari incursion."
^For the birth certificate of D'Annunzio, see"Registro: 1863".Portale Antenati (in Italian). p. 27. Retrieved8 May 2024. For the urban legend, seeRapagnetta, Amedeo (1938).La vera origine familiare e il vero cognome del poeta abruzzese Gabriele D'Annunzio (in Italian). Lanciano: Carabba.
^Parlato, Giuseppe (2000).La sinistra fascista [The fascist left] (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 88.
^abcLedeen, Michael Arthur (2001). "Preface".D'Annunzio: the First Duce (2, illustrated ed.). Transaction Publishers.ISBN9780765807427.
^Geiger, André Geiger (1918).Gabriele d'Annunzio (in French). p. 142.Après la légitimation, et conformément à la loi, il perdit ce nom de Rapagnetta pour prendre le seul nom du père qui l'avait légitimé. Il est probable que le Camillo Rapagnetta, qui figure dans l'acte de naissance du poète, était un parent, ...
^Carrière, Joseph Médard; Fucilla, Joseph Guerin (1935).D'Annunzio Abroad: A Bibliographical Essay. Vol. 2. p. 29It includes a translation of the birth certificate of D'Annunzio's father, Francesco Paolo Rapagnetta, of the legal act recognizing the latter's adoption by his uncle Antonio D'Annunzio, and the birth certificate of Gabriele D'Annunzio.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
^Conti, Fulvio (2003).Storia della massoneria italiana. Dal Risorgimento al fascism [History of Italian Freemasonry. From the Risorgimento to fascism] (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino.ISBN978-88-15-11019-0.
^Mark Phelan, 'Prophet of the Oppressed Nations: Gabriele D'Annunzio and the Irish Republic, 1919–1921,History Ireland vol. 21, no, 5(Sept/Oct 2013, pp. 44–50.
^Licht, Fred (December 1982). "The Vittoriale degli Italiani".The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians.41 (4). University of California Press:318–324.doi:10.2307/989802.JSTOR989802.
^"D'Annunzio.; Books That Prove Him to Be Entirely Selfish and Corrupt".The New York Times. 5 March 1898. p. RBA145.
^"D'Annunzio's Tragedy Prohibited by Censor.; Further Performances of Francesca da Rimini at Rome Forbidden on Moral Grounds".The New York Times. 31 December 1901. p. 5.
Antongini, Tommaso (1938).D'Annunzio. London: William Heinemann. The author was D'Annunzio's private secretary.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Bonadeo, Alfredo (1995).D'Annunzio and the Great War. Vancouver: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.ISBN0-8386-3587-3.
Baruffi, Alessandro; D'Annunzio, Gabriele (2019).Gabriele d'Annunzio: The Collection of Poems in English (paperback ed.). Toronto: LiteraryJoint Press.ISBN978-0-3599-2886-6.
Duse, Eleonora; D'Annunzio, Gabriele (2014). Minucci, Franca; Andreoli, Annamaria (eds.).Come il mare io ti parlo. Lettere 1894-1923 (in Italian) (hardback with dust jacket ed.). Milan: Bompiani.ISBN978-8-8452-6990-5.OCLC893328719.
Gilmour, David (6 March 2014)."He Dared the Undarable".The New York Review of Books. Vol. 61, no. 4. pp. 21–22.ISSN0028-7504. Review ofGabriele d'Annunzio: Poet, Seducer, and Preacher of War by Lucy Hughes-Hallett.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
Ledeen, Michael A. (4 June 2024).D'Annunzio: The First Duce (paperback; 2nd ed.). Routledge.ISBN978-0-7658-0742-7.
Pireddu, Nicoletta (2002).Antropologi alla corte della bellezza. Decadenza ed economia simbolica nell'Europa fin de siècle (in Italian) (paperback ed.). Verona: Fiorini.ISBN88-87082-16-2.
Pireddu, Nicoletta (2002). "Gabriele D'Annunzio: The Art of Squandering and the Economy of Sacrifice". In Osteen, Mark (ed.).The Question of the Gift: Essays Across Disciplines (paperback; 1st ed.). London New York: Routledge. pp. 172–190.ISBN978-0-4158-6914-0.
Pireddu, Nicolett (1997). "Il divino pregio del dono': Andrea Sperelli's economy of pleasures".Annali d'italianistica.15:175–201.ISSN0741-7527.JSTOR24006790.
Reill, Dominique Kirchner (2020).The Fiume Crisis: Life in the Wake of the Habsburg Empire (paperback ed.). Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-6742-4424-5.
Valesio, Paolo.Gabriele D'Annunzio: The Dark Flame. Translated by Migiel, Marilyn (hardcover ed.). New Haven: Yale University Press.ISBN0-300-04871-8.
Veronesi, Matteo (2006).Il critico come artista dall'estetismo agli ermetici. D'Annunzio, Croce, Serra, Luzi e altri (in Italian) (paperback ed.). Bologna: Azeta Fastpress.ISBN88-89982-05-5.
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