French fries are served hot, either soft or crispy, and are generally eaten as part of lunch or dinner or by themselves as a snack, and they commonly appear on the menus ofdiners,fast food restaurants, pubs, and bars. They are typically salted and may be served withketchup,vinegar,mayonnaise,tomato sauce, or other sauces. Fries can be topped more heavily, as in the dishes ofpoutine,loaded fries orchili cheese fries, and are occasionally made fromsweet potatoes instead of potatoes.
Preparation
Pommes frites with a mayonnaise packetA hamburger with crispy friesFries as a snack in a Dutch restaurant
The standard method for cooking french fries isdeep frying, which submerges them in hot fat, nowadays most commonly oil.[4]Vacuum fryers produce potato chips with lower oil content, while maintaining their colour and texture.[5]
The potatoes are prepared by first cutting them (peeled or unpeeled) into even strips, which are then wiped off or soaked in cold water to remove the surface starch, and thoroughly dried.[6][7] They may then be fried in one or two stages. Chefs generally agree that thetwo-bath technique produces better results.[6][8][9] Potatoes fresh out of the ground can have too high a water content resulting in soggy fries, so preference is for those that have been stored for a while.[10]
In the two-stage or two-bath method, the first bath, sometimes calledblanching, is in hot fat (around 160 °C/320 °F) to cook the fries through. This step can be done in advance.[6] Then they are more briefly fried in very hot fat (190 °C/375 °F) to crisp the exterior. They are then placed in a colander or on a cloth to drain, then served. The exact times of the two baths depend on the size of the fries. For example, for 2–3 mm strips, the first bath takes about 3 minutes, and the second bath takes only seconds.[6]
Since the 1960s, most french fries in the US have been produced from frozen Russet potatoes which have been blanched or at least air-dried industrially.[11][10][12][13] The usual fat for making french fries isvegetable oil. In the past, beefsuet was recommended as superior,[6] withvegetable shortening as an alternative.McDonald's used a mixture of 93% beeftallow and 7%cottonseed oil until 1990, when they changed to vegetable oil with beef flavouring.[14][15] Horse fat was standard in northern France and Belgium until recently,[16] and is recommended by some chefs.[17]
Chemical and physical changes
French fries are fried in a two-step process: the first time is to cook the starch throughout the entire cut at low heat, and the second time is to create the golden crispy exterior of the fry at a higher temperature. This is necessary because if the potato cuts are only fried once, the temperature would either be too hot, causing only the exterior to be cooked and not the inside, or not hot enough where the entire fry is cooked, but its crispy exterior will not develop. Although the potato cuts may be baked or steamed as a preparation method, this section will only focus on french fries made using frying oil. During the initial frying process (approximately 150 °C), water on the surface of the cuts evaporates off the surface and the water inside the cuts gets absorbed by the starch granules, causing them to swell and produce the fluffy interior of the fry.[18]
The starch granules are able to retain the water and expand due to gelatinisation. The water and heat break theglycosidic linkages betweenamylopectin andamylose strands, allowing a new gel matrix to form via hydrogen bonds which aid in water retention. The moisture that gets trapped within the gel matrix is responsible for the fluffy interior of the fry. The gelatinised starch molecules move towards the surface of the fries "forming a thick layer of gelatinised starch" and this layer of pre-gelatinised starch becomes the crisp exterior after the potato cuts are fried for a second time.[19] During the second frying process (approximately 180 °C), the remaining water on the surface of the cuts evaporates and the gelatinised starch molecules that collected towards the potato surface are cooked again, forming the crisp exterior. The golden-brown colour of the fry will develop when the amino acids and glucose on the exterior participate in aMaillard browning reaction.[18]
Name and etymology
In the United States and most of Canada, the termfrench fries, sometimes capitalised asFrench fries, or shortened tofries, refers to all dishes of fried elongated pieces of potatoes.Variants in shape and size may have names such ascurly fries,shoestring fries, etc.[20]
In the United Kingdom, Australia, South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand, the termchips is generally used, being a popular dish in mostCommonwealth countries. However, the termfrench fries orskinny fries is used for thinly cut fried potatoes which are different from the more traditional thick cutchips.
In the US or Canada these more thickly-cutchips might be calledsteak fries, depending on the shape, while the wordchips is more often used in North America to refer topotato chips, commonly known in the UK, Ireland, New Zealand, and South Africa ascrisps. In Australia,chips are often referred to ashot chips to distinguish them frompotato chips, although the type of 'chip' is often implied through context.[21]
Thomas Jefferson had "potatoes served in the French manner" at aWhite House dinner in 1802.[22][23] The expression "french fried potatoes" first occurred in print in English in the 1856 workCookery for Maids of All Work byEliza Warren: "French Fried Potatoes. – Cut new potatoes in thin slices, put them in boiling fat, and a little salt; fry both sides of a light golden brown colour; drain."[24] This account referred to thin, shallow-fried slices of potato. It is not clear where or when the now familiar deep-fried batons or fingers of potato were first prepared. In the early 20th century, the term "french fried" was being used in the sense of "deep-fried" for foods likeonion rings orchicken.[25][26]
One story about the name "french fries" claims that when theAmerican Expeditionary Forces arrived in Belgium duringWorld War I, they assumed that chips were a French dish because French was spoken in theBelgian Army.[27][28][29]But the name existed long before that in English, and the popularity of the term did not increase for decades after 1917.[30] The term was in use in the United States as early as 1886.[31] An 1899 item inGood Housekeeping specifically referencesKitchen Economy in France: "The perfection of French fries is due chiefly to the fact that plenty of fat is used."[32]
The oldest documents where a fried potato is mentioned are from Chile in 1629 in the city ofNacimiento, extracted fromHappy Captivity, written in 1673 by ChileanFrancisco Núñez de Pineda, where he narrates his experiences as a captive war soldier in 1629 at the hands ofMapuche warriors.[33] In the text, he mentioned eating "papas fritas" (fried potatoes) in 1629 and women "sent fried and stewed potatoes" to the chiefs.[33][34] The exact shape is unclear, likely cubes fried in butter which was customary.[34] However, the cane shape originates from Europe.[34]
The Belgians and French have an ongoing dispute about where fries were invented.[38]
The Belgian food historian Pierre Leclercq has traced the history of the french fry and asserts that "it is clear that fries are of French origin".[39] They became an emblematicParisian dish in the 19th century. Frédéric Krieger, aBavarian musician, learned to cook fries at a roaster onrue Montmartre in Paris in 1842, and took the recipe to Belgium in 1844, where he created his business Fritz and sold "la pomme de terre frite à l'instar de Paris" ("Paris-style fried potatoes").[40][41] The modern style of fries born in Paris around 1855 is different from the domestic fried potato that existed in the 18th century.[40]
A Belgian frites shop
From the Belgian standpoint, the popularity of the term "french fries" is explained as "French gastronomic hegemony" into which the cuisine of Belgium was assimilated, because of a lack of understanding coupled with a shared language and geographic proximity of the countries.[38] The Belgian journalistJo Gérard [fr] claimed that a 1781 family manuscript recounts that potatoes were deep-fried prior to 1680 in theMeuse valley, as a substitute forfrying fish when the rivers were frozen.[28][36] Gérard never produced the manuscript that supports this claim, and "the historical value of this story is open to question".[42] In any case, it is unrelated to the later history of the french fry, as the potato did not arrive in the region until around 1735; furthermore, given 18th-century economic conditions: "it is absolutely unthinkable that a peasant could have dedicated large quantities of fat for cooking potatoes. At most they weresautéed in a pan".[43]
Global use
Belgium
Fries are very popular in Belgium, where they are known asfrieten (in Flemish) orfrites (in Belgian French), and the Netherlands, where among the working classes they are known aspatat in the north and, in the south,friet(en).[44] In Belgium, fries are sold in shops calledfriteries (French),frietkot/frituur (Flemish),snackbar (Dutch in The Netherlands) orFritüre/Frittüre (German). They are served witha large variety of Belgian sauces and eaten either on their own or with other snacks. Traditionally fries are served in acornet de frites (French),patatzak/frietzak/fritzak (Dutch/Flemish), orFrittentüte (German), a white cardboard cone, then wrapped in paper, with a spoonful of sauce (often mayonnaise) on top.
France
In France and other French-speaking countries, fried potatoes are formallypommes de terre frites, but more commonlypommes frites ("fried apples"),patates frites, or simplyfrites. The wordsaiguillettes ("needle-ettes") orallumettes ("matchsticks") are used when the french fries are very small and thin. One enduring origin story holds that french fries were invented by street vendors on thePont Neuf bridge inParis in 1789, just before the outbreak of theFrench Revolution.[45] However, a reference exists in France from 1775 to "a few pieces of fried potato" and to "fried potatoes".[46] Eating potatoes for sustenance was promoted in France byAntoine-Augustin Parmentier, but he did not mentionfried potatoes in particular. A note in a manuscript in U.S. president Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801–1809) mentions"Pommes de terre frites à cru, en petites tranches" ("Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices"). Therecipe almost certainly comes from his Frenchchef, Honoré Julien.[22] The thick-cut fries are calledpommes Pont-Neuf[6] or simplypommes frites (about 10 mm or3⁄8 in); thinner variants arepommes allumettes (matchstick potatoes; about7 mm or1⁄4 in), andpommes paille (potato straws;4 mm or1⁄8 in).Pommes gaufrettes arewaffle fries. A popular dish in France issteak frites, which is steak accompanied by thin french fries.
French fries migrated to the German-speaking countries during the 19th century. In Germany, they are usually known by the French wordspommes frites, or onlyPommes orFritten (derived from the French words, but pronounced as German words).[47] Often served with ketchup or mayonnaise, they are popular as a side dish in restaurants, or as a street-food snack purchased at anImbissstand (snack stand). Since the 1950s,currywurst has become a widely-popular dish that is commonly offered with fries. Currywurst is a sausage (oftenbratwurst orbockwurst) in a spiced ketchup-based sauce, dusted withcurry powder and served with fries.[48]
The standard deep-fried cut potatoes in the United Kingdom are called chips, and are cut into pieces between 10 and 15 mm (0.39 and 0.59 in) thick. They are occasionally made from unpeeled potatoes (skins showing). Britishchips are not the same thing aspotato chips (an American term); those are called "crisps" in the UK and some other countries. In the UK, chips are part of the popular, and now international,fast food dishfish and chips. In the UK, the name chips are a separate item to french fries; with chips being more thickly cut than french fries, they can be cooked once or multiple times at different temperatures.[49][50][51] From 1813 on, recipes for deep-fried cut potatoes occur in popular cookbooks.[52] By the late 1850s, at least one cookbook refers to "French Fried Potatoes".[53]
The first commercially available chips in the UK were sold by Mrs 'Granny' Duce in one of theWest Riding towns in 1854.[54] Ablue plaque inOldham marks the origin of thefish-and-chip shop, and thus the start of the fast food industry in Britain.[55] In Scotland, chips were first sold inDundee: "in the 1870s, that glory of British gastronomy – the chip – was first sold by Belgian immigrant Edward De Gernier in the city's Greenmarket".[56] In Ireland the first chip shop was "opened by Giuseppe Cervi", an Italian immigrant, "who arrived there in the 1880s".[57] It was estimated in 2011 that in the UK, 80% of households bought frozen chips each year.[58] Although chips were a popular dish in mostCommonwealth countries, the "thin style" french fries have been popularised worldwide in large part by the large American fast food chains such as McDonald's andBurger King.[59]
Netherlands
"Pommes frites" or just "frites" (French), "frieten" (a word used in Flanders and the southern provinces of the Netherlands) or "patat" (used in the north and central parts of the Netherlands) became a national snack.[60] Fries also come in the form of a common Dutch street food, known asPatatje Oorlog, translated to as "war fries". It consists of fries dressed with mayonnaise, a peanut-based satay sauce and garnished with diced raw onions along with a variety of other optional ingredients.[61]
United States
In the United States, theJ. R. Simplot Company is credited with successfully commercialising french fries in frozen form during the 1940s. Subsequently, in 1967,Ray Kroc of McDonald's contracted the Simplot company to supply them with frozen fries, replacing fresh-cut potatoes. In 2004, 29% of the United States' potato crop was used to make frozen fries; 90% consumed by the food services sector and 10% by retail.[62] The United States supplies China with most of their french fries, as 70% of China's french fries are imported.[63][64] Pre-made french fries have been available forhome cooking since the 1960s, having been pre-fried (or sometimes baked), frozen and placed in a sealed plastic bag.[65] Some fast-food chains dip the fries in a sugar solution or a starch batter, to alter the appearance or texture.[66] French fries are one of the most popular dishes in the United States, commonly being served as a side dish to main dishes and in fast food restaurants. The average American eats around 30 pounds (14 kg) of french fries a year.[67]
New Brunswick
The town ofFlorenceville-Bristol,New Brunswick in Canada, headquarters ofMcCain Foods, calls itself "the French fry capital of the world" and also hosts a museum about potatoes called Potato World.[68] McCain Foods is the world's largest manufacturer of frozen french fries and other potato specialities.[69]
French fries are the main ingredient in theQuébécois dish known aspoutine, a dish consisting of fried potatoes covered withcheese curds and browngravy. Poutine has a growing number of variations, but it is generally considered to have been developed in ruralQuébec sometime in the 1950s, although precisely where in the province it first appeared is a matter of contention.[70][71][72] Canada is also responsible for providing 22% of China's french fries.[73][64]
Spain
In Spain, fried potatoes are calledpatatas fritas orpapas fritas. Another common form, involving larger irregular cuts, ispatatas bravas. The potatoes are cut into big chunks, partially boiled and then fried. They are usually seasoned with a spicy tomato sauce.[74] Fries are a common side dish in Latin American cuisine or part of larger preparations such as thesalchipapas in Peru orchorrillana in Chile.[75][76]
South Africa
Whilst eating 'regular' crispy french fries is common in South Africa, a regional favourite, particularly inCape Town, is a soft soggy version doused in white vinegar called "slap-chips" (pronounced "slup-chips" in English or "slaptjips" in Afrikaans).[77][78][79] These chips are typically thicker and fried at a lower temperature for a longer period of time than regular french fries.[77] Slap-chips are an important component of aGatsby sandwich, also a common Cape Town delicacy.[77] Slap-chips are also commonly served withdeep fried fish which are also served with the same white vinegar.
Triple-cooked chips – fries that are simmered, cooled and drained using alow-temp-long-time (LTLT) cooking technique; they are then deep fried at just 130 °C, cooled and finally deep fried at 180 °C.[96]
Waffle fries – lattice-shaped fries obtained by quarter-turning the potato before each next slide over a grater and deep-frying just once.[20]
A baked variant, oven fries, uses less or no oil.[97]
French fries primarily containcarbohydrates (mostly in the form ofstarch) and protein from the potato, and fat absorbed during the deep-frying process. Salt, which containssodium, is almost always applied as a surface seasoning. For example, a large serving of french fries atMcDonald's in the United States is 154 grams and includes 350 mg of sodium. The 510calories come from 66 g of carbohydrates, 24 g of fat and 7 g ofprotein.[101]
A number of experts have criticised french fries for being very unhealthy. According to Jonathan Bonnet in aTime magazine article, "fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud" because they "involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found."[102] Kristin Kirkpatrick calls french fries "an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all."[102] David Katz states that "French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo."[102] Eric Morrissette, spokesperson for Health Canada, states that people should limit their intake of french fries, but eating them occasionally is not likely to be a health concern.[102]
Fries frying in oil
Frying french fries inbeef tallow,lard, or other animal fats addssaturated fat to them. Replacing animal fats with tropical vegetable oils, such aspalm oil, simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. For many years partiallyhydrogenated vegetable oils were used as a means of avoiding cholesterol and reducing saturated fatty acid content, but in time thetrans fat content of these oils was perceived as contributing tocardiovascular disease.[103] Starting in 2008, many restaurant chains and manufacturers of pre-cooked frozen french fries for home reheating phased out trans-fat–containing vegetable oils.[104][105]
French fries contain some of the highest levels ofacrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health.[106][107] According to theAmerican Cancer Society, it is not clear as of 2013[update] whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of gettingcancer.[106] A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial orovarian cancers.[107] A lower-fat method for producing a french-fry–like product is to coat "frenched" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavouring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, which reduces acrylamide formation.[108]
In April 2023, researchers from China suggested a possible link between the consumption of fried food and mental health problems. According to the study, those who frequently consume fried food, especially potatoes, have an increased risk of depression and anxiety, by 7% and 12% respectively, compared to those who do not. The connection was particularly prominent among younger males. However, the causal relationship is not conclusive. The results are still preliminary, and the researchers are uncertain whether consuming fried foods causes mental health problems or individuals with symptoms of anxiety and depression tend to opt for fried foods.[109]
A 2022 study estimated the environmental impact of 57,000 food products in the UK and Ireland, finding that french fries have a lower impact on the environment than many other foods.[114]
See also
Wikimedia Commons has media related toFrench fries.
^abcdefSaint-Ange, Evelyn (2005) [1927].La Bonne Cuisine de Madame E. Saint-Ange: The Essential Companion for Authentic French Cooking. Larousse, translation Ten Speed Press. p. 553.ISBN978-1-58008-605-9.
^Fannie Farmer,The Boston Cooking-School Cook Book, 1896,s.v.
^McDonald, George (2007).Frommer's Belgium, Holland & Luxembourg. Wiley Publishing. p. 485.ISBN978-0-470-06859-5.
^ab(in French) Hugues Henry (16 August 2001)"La Frite est-elle belge?" (in French). Archived fromthe original on 24 May 2013. Retrieved3 March 2012.. Frites.be. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
^abSchehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001).French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 158.ISBN978-0415936286.
^"Top Chip Facts". Archived fromthe original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved11 February 2011.. Lovechips.co.uk. 27 February 2011
^"Popularization". today.com. 21 April 2011.Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved3 January 2018.
^Schehr, Lawrence R.; Weiss, Allen S. (2001).French Food: On the Table On the Page and in French Culture. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 158–159.ISBN978-0415936286.
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