OpenStreetMap was created bySteve Coast in response to theOrdnance Survey, the United Kingdom's national mapping agency, failing to release its data to the public under free licences in 2004. Initially, maps in OSM were created only viaGPS traces, but it was quickly populated by importingpublic domain geographical data such as the U.S.TIGER and by tracing imagery as permitted by source. OpenStreetMap's adoption was accelerated byGoogle Maps's introduction of pricing in 2012 and the development of supporting software and applications.
The founder of OpenStreetMap, Steve Coast, in 2009
Steve Coast founded the project in 2004 while attendingUniversity College London, initially focusing on mapping the United Kingdom.[4] In the UK and elsewhere, government-run and tax-funded projects like theOrdnance Survey created massivedatasets but declined to freely and widely distribute them. The first contribution was a street that Coast entered in December 2004 after cycling aroundRegent's Park inLondon with aGPS tracking unit.[6][7][8] In April 2006, theOpenStreetMap Foundation was established to encourage the growth, development and distribution of freegeospatial data and provide geospatial data for anybody to use and share.
In April 2007,Automotive Navigation Data (AND) donated a complete road data set for theNetherlands andtrunk road data forIndia andChina to the project.[9] By July 2007, when the first "The State of the Map" (SotM) conference[10] was held, there were 9,000 registered users. In October 2007, OpenStreetMap completed the import of aUS CensusTIGER road dataset.[11] In December 2007,Oxford University became the first major organisation to use OpenStreetMap data on their main website.[12] Ways to import and export data have continued to grow – by 2008, the project developed tools to export OpenStreetMap data to powerportable GPS units, replacing their existingproprietary and out-of-date maps.[13] In March 2008, two founders of CloudMade, a commercial company that uses OpenStreetMap data, announced that they had receivedventure capital funding of €2.4million.[14] In 2010,AOL launched an OSM-based version ofMapQuest and committed $1 million to increasing OSM's coverage of local communities for itsPatch website.[15]
In 2012, the launch of pricing forGoogle Maps led several prominent websites to switch from their service to OpenStreetMap and other competitors.[16] Chief among these were Foursquare andCraigslist, which adopted OpenStreetMap, andApple, which ended a contract with Google and launched a self-built mapping platform usingTomTom and OpenStreetMap data.[17]
The OSM project aims to collect data about stationary objects throughout the world, includinginfrastructure and other aspects of thebuilt environment,points of interest,land use andcover classifications, andtopography. Map features range in scale from international boundaries to hyperlocal details such as shops andstreet furniture. Although historically significant features and ongoing construction projects are routinely included in the database, the project's scope is limited to the present day, as opposed to the past or future.[19]
Anode is apoint with ageographic coordinate expressed in theWGS 84 coordinate system. A standalone node represents a point of interest, such as a mountain peak.[22]
Away is an ordered list of nodes that represents apolyline orpolygon, depending on its metadata and whether it forms a closed ring. A way can represent either a linear feature, such as a street or river, or an area, such as a forest, park, parking lot, or lake.[22] Multiple ways can share a node to represent a connection, for instance, a street intersection or aconfluence of two rivers. The node itself can simultaneously represent another feature, for example, an entrance that connects a footway to a building. Until 2007, a way was formally composed of explicitsegments between pairs of nodes.
Arelation is an ordered list of nodes, ways and other relations (together calledmembers). A relation can optionally specify therole of each of its members. Relations form complex geometries or represent abstract relationships among members. Examples include turn restrictions on roads, routes that span several existing ways (for instance, a long-distance motorway), and areas with holes.[22] Multiple relations can contain the same member to represent an overlap, for example, aroute concurrency or two adjoining political boundaries.
The OpenStreetMap data primitives are stored and processed in different formats. OpenStreetMap server usesPostgreSQLdatabase, with onetable for each data primitive, with individual objects stored asrows.[23][24]
The data structure is defined as part of the OSM API. The current version of the API, v0.6, was released in 2009. A 2023 study found that this version's changes to the relation data structure had the effect of reducing the total number of relations; however, it simultaneously lowered the barrier to creating new relations and spurred the application of relations to new use cases.[25]
OSM manages metadata as afolksonomy. Each element containskey-value pairs, calledtags, that identify and describe the feature.[22] A recommendedontology of map features (the meaning oftags) ismaintained on a wiki. New tagging schemes can always be proposed by apopular vote of a written proposal in OpenStreetMap wiki, however, there is no requirement to follow this process: editors are free to useany tags they like to describe a feature. There are over 89 million different kinds of tags in use as of June 2017.[26]
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OpenStreetMap data has been favourably compared with proprietary datasources,[27] although as of 2009[update] data quality varied across the world.[28][29] A study in 2011 compared OSM data withTomTom for Germany. For car navigation TomTom has 9% more information, while for the entire street network, OSM has 27% more information.[30] In 2011,TriMet, which serves thePortland, Oregon, metropolitan area, found that OSM's street data, consumed through the routing engineOpenTripPlanner and the search engineApache Solr, yields better results than analogous GIS datasets managed by local government agencies.[31]
A 2021 study compared theOpenStreetMap Carto style's symbology to that of theSoviet Union's comprehensivemilitary mapping programme, finding that OSM matched the Soviet maps in coverage of some features such as road infrastructure but gave less prominence to the natural environment.[32]
A study from 2021 found the mean completeness of shop data in the German regions Baden-Württemberg and Saxony to be 88% and 82% respectively. Instead of comparing OSM data to other datasets, the authors looked at how the number of shops developed over time. They then determined the expected number of shops by estimating the saturation level.[33]
All data added to the project needs to have a licence compatible with the Open Data CommonsOpen Database Licence (ODbL). This can include out-of-copyright information, public domain or other licences. Software used in the production and presentation of OpenStreetMap data may have separate licensing terms.
OpenStreetMap data and derived tiles were originally published under theCreative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike licence (CC BY-SA) with the intention of promoting free use and redistribution of the data. In September 2012, the licence was changed to the ODbL in order to define its bearing on data rather than representation more specifically.[35][36] As part of this relicensing process, some of the map data was removed from the public distribution. This included all data contributed by members that did not agree to the new licensing terms, as well as all subsequent edits to those affected objects. It also included any data contributed based on input data that was not compatible with the new terms.
Estimates suggested that over 97% of data would be retained globally, but certain regions would be affected more than others, such as in Australia where 24 to 84% of objects would be retained, depending on the type of object.[37] Ultimately, more than 99% of the data was retained, with Australia and Poland being the countries most severely affected by the change.[38] The license change and resulting deletions prompted a group of dissenting mappers to establish Free Open Street Map (FOSM), afork of OSM that remained under the previous license.[39]
OSM publishes officialdatabase dumps of the entire "planet" for reuse on minutely and weekly intervals, formatted asXML or binaryProtocol Buffers. Alternative third-party distributions provide access to OSM data in other formats or to more manageable subsets of the data. Geofabrik publishes extracts of the database in OSM andshapefile formats for individual countries and political subdivisions.Amazon Web Services publishes the planet onS3 for querying inAthena.[41] As part of theQLever project, theUniversity of Freiburg publishesTurtle dumps suitable forlinked data systems.[42] From 2020 to 2024,Meta published the Daylight Map Distribution, which appliedquality assurance processes and added some external datasets to OSM data to make it more production-ready.[43] OSM data also forms a major part of theOverture Maps Foundation's dataset and commercial datasets fromMapbox andMapTiler.[44]
Map data is collected by ground survey, personal knowledge, digitizing from imagery, and government data. Ground survey data is collected by volunteers traditionally using tools such as a handheld GPS unit, anotebook,digital camera andvoice recorder.
Software applications onsmartphones (mobile devices) have made it easy for anybody to survey. The data is then entered into the OpenStreetMap database using a number ofsoftware tools includingJOSM andMerkaator.[45] Additionally, more recently apps such asStreetComplete offer "quests" to users in nearby vicinity, allowing them to add metadata to specific points of interest (such as, for example, the opening hours of a restaurant or whether or not a particular crosswalk hastactile paving).
Mapathon competition events are also held by local OpenStreetMap teams and by non-profit organisations and local governments to map a particular area.
The availability of aerial photography and other data from commercial and government sources has added important sources of data for manual editing and automated imports. Special processes are in place to handle automated imports and avoid legal and technical problems.
Ground surveys are performed by a mapper,on foot,bicycle, or in acar,motorcycle, orboat. Map data is typically recorded on aGPS unit or on a smart phone with mapping app; a common file format isGPX.
Once the data has been collected, it is entered into the database by uploading it onto the project's website together with appropriate attribute data. As collecting and uploading data may be separated from editing objects, contribution to the project is possible without using a GPS unit, such as by using paper mapping.
Similar to users contributing data using aGPS unit, corporations (e.g. Amazon) with large vehicle fleets may use telemetry data from the vehicles to contribute data to OpenStreetMap.[46]
Some committed contributors adopt the task of mapping whole towns and cities, or organising mapping parties to gather the support of others to complete a map area.
A large number of less-active users contributes corrections and small additions to the map.[citation needed]
Yahoo! (2006–2011),[49][50]Bing (2010 – present),[48] andDigitalGlobe (2017[47]–2023[51]) allowed theiraerial photography, satellite imagery to be used as a backdrop for map production. For a period from 2009 to 2011,NearMap Pty Ltd made their high-resolution PhotoMaps (of major Australian cities, plus some rural Australian areas) available under aCC BY-SA licence.[52]
Data from several street-level image platforms are available as map data photo overlays.Bing Streetside360° image tracks, and the open andcrowdsourcedMapillary andKartaView platforms provide generally smartphone anddashcam images. Additionally, a Mapillarytraffic sign data layer, a product of user-submitted images is also available.[53]
Globally, OpenStreetMap initially used the prototype global shoreline fromNOAA. Due to it being oversimplified and crude, it has been mainly replaced by other government sources or manual tracing.[citation needed]
Out-of-copyright maps can be good sources of information about features that do not change frequently. Copyright periods vary, but in the UKCrown copyright expires after 50 years and hence old Ordnance Survey maps can legally be used. A complete set of UK 1 inch/mile maps from the late 1940s and early 1950s has been collected, scanned, and is available online as a resource for contributors.[55]
StreetComplete asking user a question. User filled in the answer. After tapping "OK" this answer will be added to an OpenStreetMap database.
The map data can be edited from a number of editing applications that provide aids including satellite and aerial imagery, street-level imagery, GPS traces, and photo and voice annotations.
By default, the official OSM website directs contributors to the Web-basediD editor.[56][57]Meta develops afork of this editor, Rapid, that provides access to external datasets, including some derived frommachine learning detections.[58] For complex or large-scale changes, experienced users often turn to more powerful desktop editing applications such asJOSM and Potlatch.
Several mobile applications also edit OSM. Go Map!! and Vespucci are the primary full-featured editors foriOS andAndroid, respectively.StreetComplete is an Android application designed for laypeople around a guided question-and-answer format. Every Door,Maps.me,Organic Maps, andOsmAnd include basic functionality for editing points of interest.
Between 2018 and 2023, the top five editing tools by number of edits were JOSM, iD, StreetComplete, Rapid, and Potlatch.[59]
OSM accepts contributions from the general public.Changesets submitted through editors and the OSM API immediately enter the database and are quickly published for reuse, without going through peer review beforehand. The API only validates changes for basic well-formedness, but not for topological or logical consistency or for adherence to community norms.
As acrowdsourced project, OSM is susceptible to several forms of datavandalism, including copyright infringement, graffiti, and spam.[60] Overall, vandalism accounts for an estimated 0.2% of edits to OSM, which is relatively low compared tovandalism on Wikipedia. Members of the community detect and fix most unintentional errors and vandalism promptly,[61] by monitoring the slippy map andrevision history on the main website, as well as by searching for issues using tools like OSMCha, OSM Inspector, and Osmose. In addition to community vigilance, theOpenStreetMap Foundation's Data Working Group and a group of administrators are responsible for responding to vandals.[60] As of 2022[update], a comprehensive security assessment of the OSM data model has yet to take place.[62]
There have been several high-profile incidents of vandalism and other errors in OSM:
In 2012, contractors affiliated withGoogle were found to be sabotaging OSM's navigation data in major cities around the world. Google responded by dismissing the contractors.[63]
In 2021, Balad, an Iranian developer of OSM-based mobile navigation applications, apologized after the OSM community caught an employee vandalising streets in Iran.[67]
In 2023, theTaj Mahal was misidentified as "Shiva Kshetra (Shiv Mandir)" (aHindu temple dedicated toShiva) for 13 days until contributors from Kerala discovered and fixed it.[68]
Players ofPokémon Go have been known to vandalize OSM, one of the game's map data sources, to manipulate gameplay. However, this vandalism is casual, rarely sustained, and it is predictable based on the mechanics of the game.[61]
Field survey in various parts of theGuagua by a group of mappers. They took notes and photos, and recorded GPS tracks. Shown in the photo is the Betis group standing beside one of theDeath March trail monuments.
The project has a geographically diverse user-base, due to emphasis of local knowledge and "on-the-ground" situation in the process of data collection.[69] Many early contributors werecyclists who survey with and for bicyclists, chartingcycleroutes and navigabletrails.[70] Others areGIS professionals. Contributors are predominately men, with only 3–5% being women.[71]
By August 2008, shortly after the second The State of the Map conference was held, there were over 50,000 registered contributors; by March 2009, there were 100,000 and by the end of 2009 the figure was nearly 200,000. In April 2012, OpenStreetMap cleared 600,000 registered contributors.[72] On 6 January 2013, OpenStreetMap reached one million registered users.[73] Around 30% of users have contributed at least one point to the OpenStreetMap database.[74][75]
As per a study conducted in 2011, only 38% of members carried out at least one edit and only 5% of members created more than 1000 nodes. Most members are in Europe (72%).[76] According to another study, when a competing maps platform is launched, OSM attracts fewer new contributors and pre-existing contributors increase their level of contribution possibly driven by their ideological attachment to the platform. Overall, there is a negative effect on the quantum of contributions.[77]
Some companies freely license satellite/aerial/street imagery sources from which OpenStreetMap contributors trace roads and features, while other companies make data available for importing map data.Automotive Navigation Data (AND) provided a complete road data set for Netherlands and trunk roads data for China and India.Amazon Logistics uses OpenStreetMap for navigation and has a team which revises the map based on GPS traces and feedback from its drivers.[78] In eight Southeast Asian countries,Grab has contributed more than 800,000 kilometres (500,000 mi) of roads based on drivers' GPS traces, including many narrow alleyways that are missing from other mapping platforms.[79]eCourier also contributes its drivers' GPS traces to OSM.
According to a study, about 17% of road kilometers were last touched by corporate teams in March 2020.[80] The top 13 corporate contributors during 2014–2020 include Apple, Kaart, Amazon, Facebook, Mapbox, Digital Egypt, Grab, Microsoft, Telenav, Developmentseed, Uber, Lightcyphers and Lyft.[78]
According to OpenStreetMap Statistics, the over all percentage of edits from corporations peaked at about 10% in 2020 and 2021 and has since fallen to about 2-3% in 2024.[81]
In 2022, over 600 people attended State of the Map inFlorence or online.[84]
Since 2007, the OpenStreetMap community has organised State of the Map (SotM), an annual international conference at which stakeholders present on technical progress and discuss policy issues.[10][85] The conference is held each year in a different city around the world. Various regional editions of State of the Map are also held for each continent, regions such as the Baltics and Latin America, and some countries with especially active local communities, such as France, Germany, and the United States.
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OSM application architectural components
The official OSM website at openstreetmap.org is the project's main hub for contributors. A reference implementation of aslippy map (featuring a selection of third-party tile layers), arevision log, and integrations with basicgeocoders and route planners facilitate the community's management of the database contents. Logged-in users can access an embedded copy of theiD editor and shortcuts for desktop editors for contributing to the database, as well as some rudimentarysocial networking features such as user profiles and diaries. The website's built-inREST API andOAuth authentication enable third-party applications to programmatically interact with the site's major functionality, including submitting changes. Much of the website runs as aRuby on Rails application backed by aPostgreSQL database.
Strictly speaking, the OSM project produces only a geographic database, leaving data consumers to handle every aspect of postprocessing the data and presenting it to end users. However, a large ecosystem of command line tools, software libraries, and cloud services has developed around OSM, much of it asfree and open-source software.
Two kinds ofsoftware stacks have emerged for rendering OSM data as an interactiveslippy map. In one, a server-side rendering engine such asMapnik prerenders the data as a series ofraster image tiles, then serves them using a library such asmod_tile. A library such asOpenLayers orLeaflet displays these tiles on the client side on the slippy map. Alternatively, a server application converts raw OSM data intovector tiles according to a schema, such as Mapbox Streets, OpenMapTiles, or Shortbread. These tiles are rendered on the client side by a library such as theMapbox Maps SDK,MapLibre,Mapzen's Tangrams, or OpenLayers. Applications such asMapbox Studio allow designers to author vector styles in an interactive, visual environment.[86] Vector maps are especially common among three-dimensional mapping applications and mobile applications. Plugins are available for embedding slippy maps incontent management systems such asWordPress.[87]
A geocoder indexes map data so that users can search it by name and address (geocoding) or look up an address based on a given coordinate pair (reverse geocoding). Several geocoders are designed to index OSM data, includingNominatim (from the Latin, 'by name'), which is built into the official OSM website along withGeoNames.[88][89]Komoot's Photonsearch engine providesincremental search functionality based on a Nominatim database. The nonprofitSocial Web Foundation's places.pub formats OSM locations asActivityPub objects, enabling social media applications to enrich geocodes associated withcheck-ins.[90] Element 84'snatural language geocoder uses alarge language model to identify OSM geometries to return.[91]
A variety ofroute planning libraries and services are based on OSM data. OSM's official website has featuredGraphHopper, theOpen Source Routing Machine, and Valhalla since February 2015.[92][93] Other widely deployed routing engines include Openrouteservice andOpenTripPlanner, which specializes in public transport routing.
OSM is an important source ofgeographic data in many fields, including transportation, analysis, public services, and humanitarian aid. However, much of its use by consumers is indirect via third-party products, becausecustomer reviews andaerial andsatellite imagery are not part of the project per se.[44]
OpenStreetMap ofSoho, central London, shown in the "Carto" OpenStreetMap layer
A variety of applications and services allow users to visualise OSM data in the form of a map. The official OSM website features an interactiveslippy map interface so that users can efficiently edit maps and viewchangesets. It presents the general-purposeOpenStreetMap Carto style alongside a selection of specialised styles for cycling and public transport.
Beyond this reference implementation, community-maintained map applications focus on alternative cartographic representations and specialised use cases. For example,OpenRailwayMap is a detailed online map of the world's railway infrastructure based on OSM data.[94]OpenSeaMap is a worldnautical chart built as amashup of OpenStreetMap, crowdsourced water depth tracks, and third-party weather and bathymetric data. OpenTopoMap uses OSM andSRTM data to createtopographic maps.[95]Tactile Map Automated Production printstactile maps that feature embossed streets, paths, and railroads from OSM.[96]
On the desktop, applications such asGNOME Maps andMarble provide their own interactive styles. GIS suites such asQGIS allow users to produce their own custom maps based on the same data.
Some newsrooms routinely incorporate OSM data into their workflows anddata journalism projects. TheChicago Tribune maintains a dashboard ofcrime in Chicago visualized against an OSM basemap.[123]The Washington Post andLos Angeles Times accompany articles with locator maps and more in-depth visuals that rely on OSM's hyperlocal coverage of places that have less detail in proprietary maps.[124][125]
Various groups, including researchers, data journalists, theOpen Knowledge Foundation, andGeochicas, have used OSM in conjunction withWikidata to explore the demographics of people honoured by street names and raise awareness of gender bias in naming decisions.[126][127][128]
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A device on the dashboard of aSydtrafik bus in Denmark tracks the operator's route using OSM data.
OSM is a data source for some Web-based map services. In 2010,Bing Maps introduced an option to display an OSM-based map[129] and later began including building data from OSM by default.[66]Wheelmap.org is a portal for discovering wheelchair-accessible places,mashing up OSM data with a separate, crowdsourcedcustomer review database.
Some public transportation providers rely on OpenStreetMap data in their route planning services and for other analysis needs.
OSM data appears in the driver or rider application or powers backend operations forridesharing companies and related services.[135] In 2022,Grab completed a migration from Google Maps andHere Maps to an in-house, OSM-based navigation solution, reducing trip times by about 90 seconds.[79] In 2024,Ola introduced a mapping platform partly based on OSM data.[136]
In 2019, owners ofTesla cars found that the Smart Summonautomatic valet parking feature withinTesla Autopilot relied on OSM's coverage of parking lot details.[137]Webots uses OSM data to simulate realistic surroundings for autonomous vehicles.[138]
OpenStreetMap Philippines GPS map, an end-product of over a thousand crisis mappers that contributed almost 5 million map updates during the 2013 Haiyan humanitarian activation[139]
Humanitarianaid agencies use OSM data both proactively and reactively. OSM's road and building coverage allow them to discover patterns of disease outbreaks and target interventions such asantimalarial medications toward remote villages. After a disaster occurs, they produce large-format printed maps and downloadable maps forGPS tracking units for aid workers to use in the field.[140]
The2010 Haiti earthquake established a model for non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to collaborate with international organisations. OpenStreetMap and Crisis Commons volunteers used available satellite imagery to map the roads, buildings and refugee camps ofPort-au-Prince in just two days, building "the most complete digital map of Haiti's roads".[141][142] The resulting data and maps have been used by several organisations providing relief aid, such as theWorld Bank, the European Commission Joint Research Centre, theOffice for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs,UNOSAT and others.[143]
After Haiti, the OpenStreetMap community continued mapping to support humanitarian organisations for various crises and disasters. After theNorthern Mali conflict (January 2013),Typhoon Haiyan[144][145] in the Philippines (November 2013), and theEbola virus epidemic in West Africa (March 2014), the OpenStreetMap community in association with the NGO Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team (HOT) has shown it can play a significant role in supporting humanitarian organisations.[82]
OSM is a map data source for manylocation-based games that require broad coverage of local details such as streets and buildings. One of the earliest such games wasHasbro's short-livedMonopoly City Streets (2009), which offered a choice between OSM andGoogle Maps as the playing board.[146][147]Battlefield 4 (2013) used a customized OSM-basedMapbox map in its leaderboards.[148] In 2013, Ballardia shut down testing ofWorld of the Living Dead: Resurrection, because too many players attempted to use the Google Maps–based game, then relaunched it after switching to OSM, which could handle thousands of players.[149]
Flight simulators combine OSM's coverage of roads and structures with other sources of natural environment data, acting as sophisticated 3D map renderers, in order to add realism to the ground below.X-Plane 10 (2011) replacedTIGER andVMAP0 with OSM for roads, railways, and some bodies of water.[150][151]Microsoft Flight Simulator (2020) introduced software-generated building models based in part on OSM data.[66] In 2020,FlightGear Flight Simulator officially integrated OSM buildings and roads into the official scenery.[152]
City-building games use a subset of OSM data as a base layer to take advantage of the player's familiarity with their surroundings. InNIMBY Rails (2021), the player develops a railway network that coexists with real-world roads and bodies of water.[153] In Jutsu Games'Infection Free Zone (2024), the player builds fortifications amid a post-apocalyptic world based on OSM streets and buildings.[154]
Alternate reality games rely on OSM data to determine where rewards and other elements of the gamespawn in the player's presence, such as the 'portals' inIngress, the 'PokéStops' and 'Pokémon Gyms' inPokémon Go, and the 'tappables' inMinecraft Earth (2019).[155] In 2017, whenNiantic migrated its augmented reality titles, includingIngress andPokémon Go, from Google Maps to OSM, theoverworld maps in these games initially became more detailed for some players but completely blank for others, due to OSM's uneven geographic coverage at the time.[156][157] In the first six weeks after launching in South Korea,Pokémon Go produced a seventeenfold spike in daily OSM contributions within the country.[158] In 2024, Niantic migrated its titles toOverture Maps data, which incorporates some OSM data.[159]
^"OpenStreetMap Statistics".OpenStreetMap. OpenStreetMap Foundation.Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved10 November 2023.
^Registered users on openstreetmap.org. Actual number of users unknown; OSM data is used by other services, many of which don't report their usage data.
^abTopf, Jochen; Ramm, Frederik (6 September 2024).On the Ground. State of the Map 2024. Nairobi: OpenStreetMap Foundation. Retrieved11 September 2024.
^Coleman, D. (2013). "Potential Contributions and Challenges of VGI for Conventional Topographic Base-Mapping Programs". In Sui, D.; Elwood, S; Goodchild, M. (eds.).Crowdsourcing Geographic Knowledge: Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) in Theory and Practice. New York, London: Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. pp. 245–264.doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4587-2.ISBN978-94-007-4586-5.
^Olbricht, Roland (2015). "Chapter: Data Retrieval for Small Spatial Regions in OpenStreetMap". In Jokar Arsanjani, J.; Zipf, A.; Mooney, P.; Helbich, M. (eds.).OpenStreetMap in GIScience. Lecture Notes in Geoinformation and Cartography. Springer International Publishing Switzerland. pp. 101–122.ISBN978-3-319-14280-7.
^Bahrdt, Daniel; Funke, Stefan; Gelhausen, Rick; Storandt, Sabine (7 November 2017).Searching OSM Planet with Context-Aware Spatial Relations(PDF). SIGSPATIAL '17: Proceedings of the 25th ACM SIGSPATIAL International Conference on Advances in Geographic Information Systems. New York City: Association for Computing Machinery.doi:10.1145/3139958.3140000.
^Sánchez-Medina, Javier J.; Arnay, Rafael; Artuñedo, Antonio; Campos-Cordobés, Sergio; Villagra, Jorge (2017)."Traffic Simulation". In Jiménez, Felipe (ed.).Intelligent Vehicles: Enabling Technologies and Future Developments. Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 418.ISBN9780128131084 – via Google Books.
^Marshall, Joey; Cheung, Abraham; DeSalvo, Bethany; Sawyer, Chase; King, Heather; Notter, Isabelle (8 May 2024)."The Socioeconomic Profile of Commuters Likely Affected by Bridge Collapse".America Counts: Stories Behind the Numbers. Washington, D.C.: United States Census Bureau. Retrieved17 September 2024.
^Schleuss, John (March 2018). "How the Los Angeles Times tells stories through maps".Calafia.2018 (1). Capitola, California: California Map Society:35–36.ISSN2995-6773.
^"Battlefield launches with Mapbox maps". Washington, D.C.: Mapbox. 20 October 2013.Leaderboards allow players to compete within their geographic regions. The maps are tailored to the look and feel of the game.
^Murdoch et al. 2020, p. 10, footnote ii: 'Accenture applied four methods to generate a valuation range for OSM. After evaluating the variability and uncertainty of many of the underlying assumptions in these approaches, the community replacement cost method was deemed the most reliable method for estimating the value of the OSM asset. Combining the total replacement cost of the OSM database, the value of the software development effort and industry standard maintenance costs yielded a total community replacement cost of $1,672,415,000.'
^Yan Minghui (20 April 2022)."共享地圖OpenStreetMap爆改地名大戰 山友憂慮增加意外" [The shared map OpenStreetMap is overrun with changed place names, climbers worry about increase in accidents].HK01 (in Traditional Chinese). Retrieved20 April 2022.
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