Francis I (French:François Ier;Middle French:Françoys; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) wasKing of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son ofCharles, Count of Angoulême, andLouise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once removed and father-in-lawLouis XII, who died without a legitimate son.
A prodigiouspatron of the arts, Francis promoted the emergentFrench Renaissance by attracting many Italian artists to work for him, includingLeonardo da Vinci, who brought theMona Lisa, which Francis had acquired. Francis' reign saw important cultural changes with the growth of central power in France, the spread ofhumanism andProtestantism, and the beginning of French exploration of theNew World.Jacques Cartier and others claimed lands in the Americas for France and paved the way for the expansion of the firstFrench colonial empire.
For his role in the development and promotion of theFrench language, Francis became known asle Père et Restaurateur des Lettres (the 'Father and Restorer of Letters').[1] He was also known asFrançois au Grand Nez ('Francis of the Large Nose'), theGrand Colas, and theRoi-Chevalier (the 'Knight-King').[1]
Francis of Orléans was born on 12 September 1494 at the Château de Cognac in the town ofCognac,[1] which at that time lay in the province ofSaintonge, a part of theDuchy of Aquitaine. Today the town lies in thedepartment ofCharente.
Francis was the only son ofCharles of Orléans, Count of Angoulême, andLouise of Savoy, and a great-great-grandson of KingCharles V of France.[4] His family was not expected to inherit the throne, as his third cousin KingCharles VIII was still young at the time of his birth, as was his father's cousin theDuke of Orléans, later King Louis XII. However, Charles VIII died childless in 1498 and was succeeded by Louis XII, who himself had no male heir.[5] TheSalic Law prevented women from inheriting the throne. Therefore, the four-year-old Francis (who was alreadyCount of Angoulême after the death of his own father two years earlier) became theheir presumptive to the throne of France in 1498 and was vested with the title ofDuke of Valois.[5]
In 1505, Louis XII, having fallen ill, ordered his daughterClaude and Francis to be married immediately, but only through an assembly of nobles were the two engaged.[6] Claude was heir presumptive to theDuchy of Brittany through her mother,Anne of Brittany. Following Anne's death, the marriage took place on 18 May 1514.[7] On 1 January 1515, Louis died, and Francis inherited the throne. He was crowned King of France in theCathedral of Reims on 25 January 1515, with Claude as hisqueen consort.[8]
As Francis was receiving his education, ideas emerging from theItalian Renaissance were influential in France. Some of his tutors, such asFrançois de Moulins de Rochefort [fr] (his Latin instructor, who later during the reign of Francis was namedGrand Aumônier de France) andChristophe de Longueil (aBrabantian humanist), were attracted by these new ways of thinking and attempted to influence Francis. His academic education had been inarithmetic, geography, grammar, history, reading, spelling, and writing and he became proficient inHebrew,Italian,Latin andSpanish. Francis came to learn chivalry, dancing, and music, and he loved archery, falconry, horseback riding, hunting, jousting,real tennis and wrestling. He ended up reading philosophy and theology and he was fascinated with art, literature, poetry and science. His mother, who admiredItalian Renaissance art, passed this interest on to her son. Although Francis did not receive a humanist education, he was more influenced byhumanism than any previous French king.
By the time he ascended the throne in 1515, theRenaissance had arrived in France, and Francis became an enthusiastic patron of the arts. At the time of his accession, the royal palaces of France were ornamented with only a scattering of great paintings, and not a single sculpture, not ancient nor modern.
Francis patronized many great artists of his time, includingAndrea del Sarto andLeonardo da Vinci; the latter of whom was persuaded to make France his home during his last years. While da Vinci painted very little during his years in France, he brought with him many of his greatest works, including theMona Lisa (known in France asLa Joconde), and these remained in France after his death. Other major artists to receive Francis' patronage included the goldsmithBenvenuto Cellini and the paintersRosso Fiorentino,Giulio Romano, andPrimaticcio, all of whom were employed in decorating Francis' various palaces. He also invited architectSebastiano Serlio, who enjoyed a fruitful late career in France.[9] Francis also commissioned a number of agents in Italy to procure notable works of art and ship them to France.
Francis was also renowned as aman of letters. When he comes up in a conversation among characters inBaldassare Castiglione'sBook of the Courtier, it is as the great hope to bring culture to the war-obsessed French nation.[10] Not only did Francis support a number of major writers of the period, but he was also a poet himself, if not one of particular ability. Francis worked diligently at improving the royal library. He appointed the French humanistGuillaume Budé as chief librarian and began to expand the collection. Francis employed agents in Italy to look for rare books and manuscripts, just as he had agents looking for artworks. During his reign, the size of the library greatly increased. Not only did he expand the library, but there is also evidence[11] that he read the books he bought for it, a much rarer event in the royal annals. Francis set an important precedent by opening his library to scholars from around the world in order to facilitate the diffusion of knowledge.
In 1537, Francis signed theOrdonnance de Montpellier, which decreed that his library be given a copy of every book to be sold in France. Francis' older sister,Marguerite,Queen of Navarre, was an accomplished writer who produced the classic collection of short stories known as theHeptaméron. Francis corresponded with the abbess and philosopherClaude de Bectoz, of whose letters he was so fond that he would carry them around and show them to the ladies of his court.[12] Together with his sister, he visited her inTarascon.[13][14]
Francis poured vast amounts of money into new structures. He continued the work of his predecessors on theChâteau d'Amboise and also started renovations on theChâteau de Blois. Early in his reign, he began construction of the magnificentChâteau de Chambord, inspired by the architectural styles of the Italian Renaissance, and perhaps even designed by Leonardo da Vinci. Francis rebuilt theLouvre Palace, transforming it from amedieval fortress into a building of Renaissance splendour. He financed the building of a new City Hall (theHôtel de Ville) for Paris in order to have control over the building's design. He constructed theChâteau de Madrid in theBois de Boulogne and rebuilt theChâteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye. The largest of Francis' building projects was the reconstruction and expansion of theChâteau de Fontainebleau, which quickly became his favourite place of residence, as well as the residence of his official mistress,Anne, Duchess of Étampes.
Francis I and Holy Roman EmperorCharles V made peace at theTruce of Nice in 1538. Francis I actually refused to meet Charles in person, and the treaty was signed in separate rooms.
Although theItalian Wars (1494–1559) came to dominate the reign of Francis I, which he constantly participated in at the forefront as le Roi-Chevalier, the wars were not the sole focus of his policies. He merely continued the wars that he succeeded from his predecessors and that his heir and successor on the throne,Henry II of France, would inherit after Francis' death. Indeed, the Italian Wars had begun whenMilan sent a plea to King Charles VIII of France for protection against the aggressive actions of theKing of Naples.[15]
Much of the military activity of Francis's reign was focused on his sworn enemy, the Holy Roman EmperorCharles V. Francis and Charles maintained an intense personal rivalry. In addition to the Holy Roman Empire, Charles personally ruled Spain, Austria, and a number of smaller possessions neighbouring France. He was thus a constant threat to Francis I's kingdom.
Militarily and diplomatically, the reign of Francis I was a mixed bag of success and failure. Francis had tried and failed to becomeHoly Roman Emperor at theImperial election of 1519, primarily due to his adversary Charles having threatened the electors with violence. However, there were also temporary victories, such as in the portion of the Italian Wars called theWar of the League of Cambrai (1508–1516) and, more specifically, to the final stage of that war, which history refers to simply as "Francis' First Italian War" (1515–1516), when Francis routed the combined forces of the Papal States and theOld Swiss Confederacy atMarignano on 13–15 September 1515. This grand victory allowed Francis to capture the Italian city-state ofDuchy of Milan. However, in November 1521, during theFour Years' War (1521–1526), Francis was forced to abandon Milan in the face of the advancing Imperial forces of the Holy Roman Empire and open revolt within the duchy.
Francis I attempted to arrange an alliance withHenry VIII at the famous meeting at theField of Cloth of Gold on 7 June 1520, but despite a lavish fortnight of diplomacy they failed to reach an agreement.[16] Francis and Henry VIII both shared the dreams of power and chivalric glory; however their relationship featured intense personal and dynastic rivalry. Francis was driven by his intense eagerness to retake Milan, despite the strong opposition of other powers. Henry VIII was likewise determined to recapture northern France, which Francis could not allow.[17]
However, the situation was grave; Francis had to face not only the whole might of Western Europe, but also internal hostility in the form ofCharles III de Bourbon, a capable commander who fought alongside Francis as his constable at the great battle of Marignano, but defected to Charles V after his conflict with Francis' mother over inheritance of Bourbon estates. Despite all this, the Kingdom of France still held the balance of power in its favour. Nevertheless, the defeat suffered from the cataclysmicbattle of Pavia on 24 February 1525, during part of the continuing Italian Wars known as theFour Years' War upheaved the political ground of Europe. He was actually taken prisoner:Cesare Hercolani injured his horse, and Francis himself was subsequently captured byCharles de Lannoy. Some claim he was captured by Diego Dávila,Alonso Pita da Veiga, andJuan de Urbieta, from Guipúzcoa. For this reason, Hercolani was named "Victor of the battle of Pavia".Zuppa alla Pavese was supposedly invented on the spot to feed the captive king after the battle.[18]
Francis was held captive morbidly in Madrid. In a letter to his mother, he wrote, "Of all things, nothing remains to me but honour and life, which is safe." This line has come down in history famously as "All is lost save honour."[19] Francis was compelled to make major concessions to Charles in theTreaty of Madrid (1526), signed on 14 January, before he was freed on 17 March. An ultimatum from Ottoman Sultan Suleiman to Charles additionally played a role in his release. Francis was forced to surrender any claims to Naples and Milan in Italy.[20] He was forced to recognise the independence of the Duchy of Burgundy, which had been part of France since the death ofCharles the Bold in 1477.[21] And finally, Francis was betrothed to Charles' sister Eleanor. Francis returned to France in exchange for his two sons,Francis and Henry, Duke of Orléans, the future Henry II of France, but once he was free he revoked the forced concessions as his agreement with Charles was made under duress. He also proclaimed that the agreement was void because his sons were taken hostage with the implication that his word alone could not be trusted. Thus he firmly repudiated it. A renewed alliance with England enabled Francis to repudiate the treaty of Madrid.
Francis persevered in his rivalry against Charles and his intent to control Italy. By the mid-1520s,Pope Clement VII wished to liberate Italy from foreign domination, especially that of Charles, so he allied withVenice to form theLeague of Cognac. Francis joined the League in May 1526, in theWar of the League of Cognac of 1526–30.[22] Francis' allies proved weak, and the war was ended by theTreaty of Cambrai (1529; "the Peace of the Ladies", negotiated by Francis' mother and Charles' aunt).[23] The two princes were released, and Francis married Eleanor.
On 24 July 1534, Francis, inspired by the Spanishtercios and the Roman legions, issued an edict to form seven infantry Légions of 6,000 troops each, of which 12,000 of the 42,000 were to bearquebusiers, testifying to the growing importance of gunpowder. The force was a national standing army, where any soldier could be promoted on the basis of vacancies, was paid wages by grade and granted exemptions from thetaille and other taxes up to 20sous, a heavy burden on the state budget.[24]
After the League of Cognac failed, Francis concluded a secret alliance withPhilip I, Landgrave of Hesse on 27 January 1534. This was directed against Charles on the pretext of assisting theDuke of Württemberg to regain his traditional seat, from which Charles had removed him in 1519. Francis also obtained the help of theOttoman Empire and after the death ofFrancesco II Sforza, ruler of Milan, renewed the contest in Italy in theItalian War of 1536–1538. This round of fighting, which had little result, was ended by theTruce of Nice. The agreement collapsed, however, which led to Francis' final attempt on Italy in theItalian War of 1542–1546. Francis I managed to hold off the forces of Charles and Henry VIII, with Charles being forced to sign theTreaty of Crépy because of his financial difficulties and conflicts with theSchmalkaldic League.[25]
Francis had been much aggrieved at thepapal bullAeterni regis: in June 1481 Portuguese rule over Africa and the Indies was confirmed byPope Sixtus IV. Thirteen years later, on 7 June 1494,Portugal and theCrown of Castille signed theTreaty of Tordesillas under which the newly discovered lands would be divided between the two signatories. All this prompted Francis to declare, "The sun shines for me as it does for others. I would very much like to see the clause of Adam's will by which I should be denied my share of the world."[26]
In order to counterbalance the power of theHabsburg Empire under Charles V, especially its control of large parts of theNew World through the Crown of Spain, Francis endeavoured to develop contacts with the New World and Asia. Fleets were sent to the Americas and the Far East, and close contacts were developed with the Ottoman Empire permitting the development of French Mediterranean trade as well as the establishment of a strategic military alliance.
The port city now known asLe Havre was founded in 1517 during the early years of Francis' reign. The construction of a new port was urgently needed in order to replace the ancient harbours ofHonfleur andHarfleur, whose utility had decreased due to silting. Le Havre was originally namedFranciscopolis after the king who founded it, but this name did not survive into later reigns.
In 1524, Francis assisted the citizens ofLyon in financing the expedition ofGiovanni da Verrazzano to North America. On this expedition, Verrazzano visited the present site ofNew York City, naming itNew Angoulême, and claimedNewfoundland for the French crown. Verrazzano's letter to Francis of 8 July 1524 is known as theCèllere Codex.[27]
In 1534, Francis sentJacques Cartier to explore theSt. Lawrence River inQuebec to find "certain islands and lands where it is said there must be great quantities of gold and other riches".[29] In 1541, Francis sentJean-François de Roberval to settle Canada and to provide for the spread of "the Holy Catholic faith."
French trade with East Asia was initiated during the reign of Francis I with the help of shipownerJean Ango. In July 1527, a FrenchNorman trading ship from the city ofRouen is recorded by the PortugueseJoão de Barros as having arrived in the Indian city ofDiu.[30] In 1529,Jean Parmentier, on board theSacre and thePensée, reachedSumatra.[30][31] Upon its return, the expedition triggered the development of theDieppe maps, influencing the work ofDieppe cartographers such asJean Rotz.[32]
In a watershed moment in European diplomacy, Francis came to an understanding with the Ottoman Empire that developed into aFranco-Ottoman alliance. The objective for Francis was to find an ally against theHouse of Habsburg.[34] The pretext used by Francis was the protection of theChristians in Ottoman lands. The alliance has been called "the first nonideological diplomatic alliance of its kind between a Christian and non-Christian empire".[35] It did, however, cause quite a scandal in the Christian world[36] and was designated "the impious alliance", or "the sacrilegious union of the [French] Lily and the [Ottoman] Crescent." Nevertheless, it endured for many years, since it served the objective interests of both parties.[37] The two powers colluded againstCharles V, and in 1543 they even combined for a joint naval assault in thesiege of Nice.
Francis took several steps to eradicate the monopoly ofLatin as the language of knowledge. In 1530, he declared French the national language of the kingdom, and that same year opened the Collège des trois langues, orCollège Royal, following the recommendation of humanistGuillaume Budé. Students at the Collège could studyGreek,Hebrew andAramaic, thenArabic underGuillaume Postel beginning in 1539.[39]
In 1539, in his castle inVillers-Cotterêts,[40] Francis signed the important edict known asOrdinance of Villers-Cotterêts, which, among other reforms, made French the administrative language of the kingdom as a replacement forLatin. This same edict required priests to register births, marriages, and deaths, and to establish a registry office in every parish. This initiated the first records of vital statistics with filiations available in Europe.[citation needed]
Divisions inChristianity in Western Europe during Francis' reign created lasting international rifts.Martin Luther's preaching and writing sparked theProtestant Reformation, which spread through much of Europe, including France.
Initially, Francis was relatively tolerant of the new movement, despite burning several heretics at thePlace Maubert in 1523.[41] He was influenced by his beloved sisterMarguerite de Navarre, who was genuinely attracted by Luther's theology.[42] Francis even considered it politically useful, as it caused manyGerman princes to turn against his enemy Charles V.
Francis' attitude towardsProtestantism changed for the worse following the "Affair of the Placards", on the night of 17 October 1534, in which notices appeared on the streets of Paris and other major cities denouncing the Catholicmass. The most fervent Catholics were outraged by the notice's allegations. Francis himself came to view the movement as a plot against him and began to persecute its followers. Protestants were jailed and executed. In some areas, whole villages were destroyed. In Paris, after 1540, Francis had heretics such asÉtienne Dolet tortured and burned.[43]Printing was censored and leadingProtestant reformers such asJohn Calvin were forced into exile. The persecutions soon numbered thousands of dead and tens of thousands of homeless.[44]
Persecutions against Protestants were codified in theEdict of Fontainebleau (1540) issued by Francis. Major acts of violence continued, as when Francis ordered the extirpation of one of the historical pre-Lutheran groups, theWaldensians, at theMassacre of Mérindol in 1545.[45]
Francis died at theChâteau de Rambouillet on 31 March 1547, on his son and successor's 28th birthday. It is said that "he died complaining about the weight of a crown that he had first perceived as a gift from God".[46] He was interred with his first wife, Claude, Duchess of Brittany, inSaint Denis Basilica. He was succeeded by his son,Henry II.
Francis' tomb and that of his wife and mother, along with the tombs of other French kings and members of the royal family, were desecrated on 20 October 1793 during theReign of Terror at the height of theFrench Revolution.
Francis I has a poor reputation in France—his 500th anniversary was little noted in 1994. Popular and scholarly historical memory ignores his building of so many chateaux, his art collection, and his patronage of scholars and artists. He is seen as a playboy who disgraced France by allowing himself to be defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia. The historianJules Michelet set the negative image.[47]
Francis' personal emblem was thesalamander and his Latin motto wasNutrisco et extinguo ("I nourish [the good] and extinguish [the bad]").[48] His long nose earned him the nicknameFrançois du Grand Nez ('Francis of the Big Nose'), and he was also colloquially known as theGrand Colas orBonhomme Colas. For his personal involvement in battles, he was known asle Roi-Chevalier ('the Knight-King') orle Roi-Guerrier ('the Warrior-King').[49]
British historian Glenn Richardson considers Francis a success:
He was a king who ruled as well as reigned. He knew the importance of war and a high international profile in staking his claim to be a great warrior-king of France. In battle, he was brave, if impetuous, which led equally to triumph and disaster. Domestically, Francis exercised the spirit and letter of the royal prerogative to its fullest extent. He bargained hard over taxation and other issues with interest groups, often by appearing not to bargain at all. He enhanced royal power and concentrated decision-making in a tight personal executive but used a wide range of offices, gifts and his own personal charisma to build up an elective personal affinity among the ranks of the nobility upon whom his reign depended .... Under Francis, the court of France was at the height of its prestige and international influence during the 16th century. Although opinion has varied considerably over the centuries since his death, his cultural legacy to France, to its Renaissance, was immense and ought to secure his reputation as among the greatest of its kings.[50]
Louise (19 August 1515 – 21 September 1518): died young; engaged toCharles I of Spain almost from birth until death.
Charlotte (23 October 1516 – 8 September 1524): died young; engaged toCharles I of Spain from 1518 until death.
Francis (28 February 1518 – 10 August 1536): succeeded his mother Claude as Duke of Brittany, but died aged 18, unmarried and childless.
Henry II (31 March 1519 – 10 July 1559): succeeded his father Francis I as King of France and his brother Francis as Duke of Brittany. MarriedCatherine de' Medici and had issue.
On 4 July 1530, Francis I married his second wifeEleanor of Austria,[51] Queen (widow) of Portugal and the sister of EmperorCharles V. The couple had no children.
During his reign, Francis kept two official mistresses at court, and he was the first king to officially give the title of "maîtresse-en-titre" to his favorite mistress.[52] The first wasFrançoise de Foix, Countess ofChâteaubriant. In 1526, she was replaced by the blonde-haired, culturedAnne de Pisseleu d'Heilly, Duchess of Étampes, who, with the death of Queen Claude two years earlier, wielded far more political power at court than her predecessor had done. Another of his earlier mistresses was allegedlyMary Boleyn, mistress of KingHenry VIII and sister of Henry's future wife,Anne Boleyn.[53]
With Jacquette de Lanssac he was reputed to have had the following illegitimate child:[54][55]
Francis was the subject of several portraits. A 1525–30 work byJean Clouet is now housed at theLouvre in Paris.[59] A portrait dated to 1532–33 byJoos van Cleve may have been commissioned either for the occasion of a meeting withHenry VIII of England or Francis' second marriage.[60] The workshop of van Cleve produced copies of this work to be distributed to other courts.[61][62]
^Serlio, Sebastiano (1996) [1486]. "Sebastiano Serlio on architecture". In Hart, Vaughan; Hicks, Peter (eds.).Tutte l'opere d'architettura et prospetiva [All the Works of Architecture and Perspective]. Vol. 2. Yale University Press. p. xi.ISBN0-300-06286-9.OL811378M.
^Janine Garrisson, Emmanuel Haven (1995).A History of Sixteenth Century France, 1483-1598 Renaissance, Reformation and Rebellion. Macmillan Education UK. pp. 155–156.ISBN978-1-349-24020-3.
^"Francois I, hoping that Morocco would open up to France as easily as Mexico had to Spain, sent a commission, half commercial and half diplomatic, which he confided to one Pierre de Piton. The story of his mission is not without interest" inThe conquest of Morocco by Cecil Vivian Usborne, S. Paul & co. ltd., 1936, p. 33.
^McCabe, Ina Baghdianitz.Orientalism in early modern France.ISBN978-1-84520-374-0, p. 25ff.
^Herman, Eleanor (2004).Sex With Kings: 500 Years of Adultery, Power, Rivalry, and Revenge (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. pp. 5.ISBN978-0-06-058544-0.
^Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII, X, no. 450
^abPalluel-Guillard, André."La Maison de Savoie" (in French). Conseil Savoie Mont Blanc. Archived fromthe original on 8 July 2014. Retrieved28 June 2018.
^abLeguai, André (2005). "Agnès de Bourgogne, duchesse de Bourbon (1405?–1476)".Les ducs de Bourbon, le Bourbonnais et le royaume de France à la fin du Moyen Age [The dukes of Bourbon, the Bourbonnais and the kingdom of France at the end of the Middle Ages] (in French). Yzeure: Société bourbonnaise des études locales. pp. 145–160.
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