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Afixed-wing aircraft is a heavier-than-airaircraft, such as anairplane, which is capable offlight usingaerodynamic lift. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct fromrotary-wing aircraft (in which arotor mounted on a spinning shaft generates lift), andornithopters (in which the wings oscillate to generate lift). The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are not necessarily rigid; kites,hang gliders,variable-sweep wing aircraft, and airplanes that usewing morphing are all classified as fixed wing.
Gliding fixed-wing aircraft, including free-flyinggliders and tetheredkites, can use moving air to gain altitude.Powered fixed-wing aircraft (airplanes) that gain forwardthrust from anengine includepowered paragliders,powered hang gliders andground effect vehicles. Most fixed-wing aircraft are operated by apilot, but some areunmanned and controlled eitherremotely or autonomously.
Kites were used approximately 2,800 years ago in China, where kite building materials were available. Leaf kites may have been flown earlier in what is nowSulawesi, based on their interpretation of cave paintings on nearbyMuna Island.[1] By at least 549 AD paper kites were flying, as recorded that year, a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission.[2] Ancient and medieval Chinese sources report kites used for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations.[2]
Kite stories were brought to Europe byMarco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, and kites were brought back by sailors from Japan andMalaysia in the 16th and 17th centuries.[3] Although initially regarded as curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries kites were used for scientific research.[3]
Around400 BC in Greece,Archytas was reputed to have designed and built the first self-propelled flying device, shaped like a bird and propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have flown some 200 m (660 ft).[4][5] This machine may have been suspended during its flight.[6][7]
One of the earliest attempts withgliders was by 11th-century monkEilmer of Malmesbury, which failed. A 17th-century account states that 9th-century poetAbbas Ibn Firnas made a similar attempt, though no earlier sources record this event.[8]
In 1799,Sir George Cayley laid out the concept of the modern airplane as a fixed-wing machine with systems for lift, propulsion, and control.[9][10] Cayley was building and flying models of fixed-wing aircraft as early as 1803, and built a successful passenger-carryingglider in 1853.[11] In 1856, FrenchmanJean-Marie Le Bris made the first powered flight, had his glider L'Albatros artificiel towed by a horse along a beach.[12] In 1884, AmericanJohn J. Montgomery made controlled flights in a glider as a part of a series of gliders he built between 1883 and 1886.[13] Other aviators who made similar flights at that time wereOtto Lilienthal,Percy Pilcher, and protégés ofOctave Chanute.
In the 1890s,Lawrence Hargrave conducted research on wing structures and developed abox kite that lifted the weight of a man. His designs were widely adopted. He also developed a type of rotary aircraft engine, but did not create a powered fixed-wing aircraft.[14]
Sir Hiram Maxim built a craft that weighed 3.5 tons, with a 110-foot (34-meter) wingspan powered by two 360-horsepower (270-kW) steam engines driving two propellers. In 1894, his machine was tested with overhead rails to prevent it from rising. The test showed that it had enough lift to take off. The craft was uncontrollable, and Maxim abandoned work on it.[15]
TheWright brothers' flights in 1903 with theirFlyer I are recognized by theFédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body foraeronautics, as "the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight".[16] By 1905, theWright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods.
In 1906, Brazilian inventorAlberto Santos Dumont designed,built and piloted an aircraft that set the first world record recognized by theAéro-Club de France by flying the14 bis 220 metres (720 ft) in less than 22 seconds.[17] The flight was certified by the FAI.[18]
TheBleriot VIII design of 1908 was an early aircraft design that had the modernmonoplanetractor configuration. It had movable tail surfaces controlling both yaw and pitch, a form of roll control supplied either by wing warping or by ailerons and controlled by its pilot with ajoystick and rudder bar. It was an important predecessor of his laterBleriot XIChannel-crossing aircraft of the summer of 1909.[19]
World War I served initiated the use of aircraft as weapons and observation platforms. The earliest known aerial victory with a synchronizedmachine gun-armedfighter aircraft occurred in 1915, flown by GermanLuftstreitkräfte LieutenantKurt Wintgens.Fighter aces appeared; the greatest (by number of air victories) wasManfred von Richthofen.[20]
Alcock and Brown crossed the Atlantic non-stop for the first time in 1919. The first commercial flights traveled between the United States and Canada in 1919.[citation needed]
The so-called Golden Age of Aviation occurred between the two World Wars, during which updated interpretations of earlier breakthroughs. Innovations includeHugo Junkers' all-metal air framesin 1915 leading to multi-engine aircraftof up to 60+ meter wingspan sizes by the early 1930s, adoption of the mostly air-cooledradial engine as a practical aircraft power plant alongside V-12 liquid-cooled aviation engines, and longer and longer flights – as witha Vickers Vimy in 1919, followed months later bythe U.S. Navy's NC-4 transatlantic flight; culminating in May 1927 withCharles Lindbergh's solo trans-Atlantic flight in theSpirit of St. Louis spurring ever-longer flight attempts.
Airplanes had a presence in the major battles of World War II. They were an essential component of military strategies, such as the GermanBlitzkrieg or the American and Japaneseaircraft carrier campaigns of the Pacific.
Military gliders were developed and used in several campaigns, but were limited by the high casualty rate encountered. TheFocke-Achgelis Fa 330Bachstelze (Wagtail) rotor kite of 1942 was notable for its use by GermanU-boats.
Before and during the war, British and German designers worked onjet engines. The firstjet aircraft to fly, in 1939, was the GermanHeinkel He 178. In 1943, the first operational jet fighter, theMesserschmitt Me 262, went into service with the GermanLuftwaffe. Later in the war the BritishGloster Meteor entered service, but never saw action – top air speeds for that era went as high as 1,130 km/h (700 mph), with the early July 1944 unofficial record flight of the GermanMe 163B V18 rocket fighter prototype.[21]
In October 1947, theBell X-1 was the first aircraft to exceed the speed of sound, flown byChuck Yeager.[22]
In 1948–49, aircraft transported supplies during theBerlin Blockade. New aircraft types, such as theB-52, were produced during theCold War.
The firstjet airliner, thede Havilland Comet, was introduced in 1952, followed by the SovietTupolev Tu-104 in 1956. TheBoeing 707, the first widely successful commercial jet, was in commercial service for more than 50 years, from 1958 to 2010. TheBoeing 747 was the world's largest passenger aircraft from 1970 until it was surpassed by theAirbus A380 in 2005. The most successful aircraft is theDouglas DC-3 and its military version, theC-47,[23] a medium sized twin engine passenger or transport aircraft that has been in service since 1936 and is still used throughout the world. Some of the hundreds of versions found other purposes, like theAC-47, aVietnam War era gunship, which is still used in theColombian Air Force.[24]
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An airplane (aeroplane or plane) is a powered fixed-wing aircraft propelled bythrust from ajet engine orpropeller. Planes come in many sizes, shapes, and wing configurations. Uses include recreation, transportation of goods and people, military, and research.
A seaplane (hydroplane) is capable oftaking off andlanding (alighting) on water. Seaplanes that can also operate from dry land are a subclass calledamphibian aircraft.[25] Seaplanes and amphibians divide into two categories:float planes andflying boats.
Many forms of glider may include a small power plant. These include:
A ground effect vehicle (GEV) flies close to the terrain, making use of theground effect – the interaction between the wings and the surface. Some GEVs are able to fly higher out of ground effect (OGE) when required – these are classed as powered fixed-wing aircraft.[29]
A glider is a heavier-than-air craft whose free flight does not require an engine. A sailplane is a fixed-wing glider designed for soaring – gaining height using updrafts of air and to fly for long periods.
Gliders are mainly used for recreation but have found use for purposes such as aerodynamics research, warfare and spacecraft recovery.
Motor gliders are equipped with a limited propulsion system for takeoff, or to extend flight duration.
As is the case with planes, gliders come in diverse forms with varied wings, aerodynamic efficiency, pilot location, and controls.
Large gliders are most commonly born aloft by a tow-plane or by awinch.Military gliders have been used in combat to deliver troops and equipment, while specialized gliders have been used in atmospheric andaerodynamic research.Rocket-powered aircraft andspaceplanes have made unpowered landings similar to a glider.
Gliders and sailplanes that are used for the sport ofgliding have high aerodynamic efficiency. The highestlift-to-drag ratio is 70:1, though 50:1 is common. After take-off, further altitude can be gained through the skillful exploitation of rising air. Flights of thousands of kilometers at average speeds over 200 km/h have been achieved.
One small-scale example of a glider is thepaper airplane. An ordinary sheet of paper can be folded into an aerodynamic shape fairly easily; its lowmass relative to its surface area reduces the required lift for flight, allowing it to glide some distance.
Gliders and sailplanes share many design elements and aerodynamic principles with powered aircraft. For example, theHorten H.IV was a taillessflying wing glider, and thedelta-wingedSpace Shuttle orbiter glided during its descent phase. Many gliders adopt similar control surfaces and instruments as airplanes.
The main application of modern glider aircraft is sport and recreation.
Gliders were developed in the 1920s for recreational purposes. As pilots began to understand how to use rising air,sailplane gliders were developed with a highlift-to-drag ratio. These allowed the craft to glide to the next source of "lift", increasing their range. This gave rise to the popular sport ofgliding.
Early gliders were built mainly of wood and metal, later replaced by composite materials incorporating glass, carbon oraramid fibers. To minimizedrag, these types have a streamlinedfuselage and long narrow wings incorporating ahigh aspect ratio. Single-seat and two-seat gliders are available.
Initially, training was done by short "hops" inprimary gliders, which have nocockpit and minimal instruments.[30] Since shortly after World War II, training is done in two-seat dual control gliders, but high-performance two-seaters can make long flights. Originally skids were used for landing, later replaced by wheels, often retractable. Gliders known asmotor gliders are designed for unpowered flight, but can deploypiston,rotary,jet orelectric engines.[31] Gliders are classified by theFAI for competitions intoglider competition classes mainly on the basis of wingspan and flaps.
A class of ultralight sailplanes, including some known asmicrolift gliders and some known as airchairs, has been defined by the FAI based on weight. They are light enough to be transported easily, and can be flown without licensing in some countries. Ultralight gliders have performance similar tohang gliders, but offer some crash safety as the pilot can strap into an upright seat within a deform-able structure. Landing is usually on one or two wheels which distinguishes these craft from hang gliders. Most are built by individual designers and hobbyists.
Military gliders were used during World War II for carrying troops (glider infantry) and heavy equipment to combat zones. The gliders were towed into the air and most of the way to their target by transport planes, e.g.C-47 Dakota, or by one-time bombers that had been relegated to secondary activities, e.g.Short Stirling. The advantage over paratroopers were that heavy equipment could be landed and that troops were quickly assembled rather than dispersed over aparachutedrop zone. The gliders were treated as disposable, constructed from inexpensive materials such as wood, though a few were re-used. By the time of theKorean War, transport aircraft had become larger and more efficient so that even light tanks could be dropped by parachute, obsoleting gliders.
Even after the development of powered aircraft, gliders continued to be used foraviation research. TheNASA Paresev Rogallo flexible wing was developed to investigate alternative methods of recovering spacecraft. Although this application was abandoned, publicity inspired hobbyists to adapt the flexible-wingairfoil for hang gliders.
Initial research into many types of fixed-wing craft, includingflying wings andlifting bodies was also carried out using unpowered prototypes.
Ahang glider is aglider aircraft in which the pilot is suspended in a harness suspended from theair frame, and exercises control by shifting body weight in opposition to a control frame. Hang gliders are typically made of analuminum alloy orcomposite-framed fabric wing. Pilots cansoar for hours, gain thousands of meters of altitude inthermal updrafts, perform aerobatics, and glide cross-country for hundreds of kilometers.
Aparaglider is a lightweight, free-flying, foot-launched glider with no rigid body.[32] The pilot is suspended in aharness below a hollow fabric wing whose shape is formed by its suspension lines. Air entering vents in the front of the wing and the aerodynamic forces of the air flowing over the outside power the craft. Paragliding is most often a recreational activity.
Apaper plane is a toy aircraft (usually a glider) made out of paper or paperboard.
Model glider aircraft are models of aircraft using lightweight materials such aspolystyrene andbalsa wood. Designs range from simple glider aircraft to accuratescale models, some of which can be very large.
Glide bombs are bombs with aerodynamic surfaces to allow a gliding flight path rather than a ballistic one. This enables stand-off aircraft to attack a target from a distance.
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A kite is a tethered aircraft held aloft by wind that blows over its wing(s).[33] High pressure below the wing deflects the airflow downwards. This deflection generates horizontaldrag in the direction of the wind. The resultant force vector from the lift and drag force components is opposed by the tension of thetether.
Kites are mostly flown for recreational purposes, but have many other uses. Early pioneers such as theWright Brothers andJ.W. Dunne sometimes flew an aircraft as a kite in order to confirm its flight characteristics, before adding an engine and flight controls.
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Kites have been used for signaling, for delivery ofmunitions, and forobservation, by lifting an observer above the field of battle, and by usingkite aerial photography.
Kites have been used for scientific purposes, such asBenjamin Franklin's famous experiment proving thatlightning iselectricity. Kites were the precursors to the traditionalaircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft.Alexander Graham Bell experimented with largeman-lifting kites, as did theWright brothers andLawrence Hargrave. Kites had a historical role in lifting scientific instruments to measure atmospheric conditions forweather forecasting.
Kites can be used to carry radio antennas. This method was used for the reception station of the first transatlantic transmission byMarconi.Captive balloons may be more convenient for such experiments, because kite-carried antennas require strong wind, which may be not always available with heavy equipment and a ground conductor.
Kites can be used to carry light sources such as light sticks or battery-powered lights.
Kites can be used to pull people and vehicles downwind. Efficientfoil-type kites such aspower kites can also be used to sail upwind under the same principles as used by other sailing craft, provided that lateral forces on the ground or in the water are redirected as with the keels, center boards, wheels and ice blades of traditional sailing craft. In the last two decades,kite sailing sports have become popular, such askite buggying,kite landboarding,kite boating and kite surfing.Snow kiting is also popular.
Kite sailing opens several possibilities not available in traditional sailing:
Research and development projects investigate kites for harnessing high altitude wind currents for electricity generation.[34]
Kite festivals are a popular form of entertainment throughout the world. They include local events, traditional festivals and major international festivals.
The structural element of a fixed-wing aircraft is the air frame. It varies according to the aircraft's type, purpose, and technology. Early airframes were made of wood with fabric wing surfaces, When engines became available for powered flight, their mounts were made of metal. As speeds increased metal became more common until by the end of World War II, all-metal (and glass) aircraft were common. In modern times,composite materials became more common.
Typical structural elements include:
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The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are static planes extending to either side of the aircraft. When the aircraft travels forwards, air flows over the wings that are shaped to create lift.
Kites and some lightweight gliders and airplanes have flexible wing surfaces that are stretched across a frame and made rigid by the lift forces exerted by the airflow over them. Larger aircraft have rigid wing surfaces.
Whether flexible or rigid, most wings have a strong frame to give them shape and to transfer lift from the wing surface to the rest of the aircraft. The main structural elements are one or more spars running from root to tip, and ribs running from the leading (front) to the trailing (rear) edge.
Early airplane engines had little power and light weight was critical. Also, early airfoil sections were thin, and could not support a strong frame. Until the 1930s, most wings were so fragile that external bracing struts and wires were added. As engine power increased, wings could be made heavy and strong enough that bracing was unnecessary. Such an unbraced wing is called acantilever wing.
The number and shape of wings vary widely. Some designs blend the wing with the fuselage, while left and right wings separated by the fuselage are more common.
Occasionally more wings have been used, such as the three-wingedtriplane from World War I. Four-wingedquadruplanes and othermultiplane designs have had little success.
Most planes aremonoplanes, with one or two parallel wings.Biplanes andtriplanes stack one wing above the other.Tandem wings place one wing behind the other, possibly joined at the tips. When the available engine power increased during the 1920s and 1930s and bracing was no longer needed, the unbraced or cantilever monoplane became the most common form.
Theplanform is the shape when seen from above/below. To be aerodynamically efficient, wings are straight with a long span, but a short chord (highaspect ratio). To be structurally efficient, and hence lightweight, wingspan must be as small as possible, but offer enough area to provide lift.
To travel attransonic speeds, variable geometry wings change orientation, angling backward to reduce drag from supersonic shock waves. Thevariable-sweep wing transforms between an efficient straight configuration fortakeoff and landing, to a low-drag swept configuration for high-speed flight. Other forms of variable planform have been flown, but none have gone beyond the research stage. Theswept wing is a straight wing swept backward or forwards.
Thedelta wing is a triangular shape that serves various purposes. As a flexibleRogallo wing, it allows a stable shape under aerodynamic forces, and is often used for kites and other ultralight craft. It is supersonic capable, combining high strength with low drag.
Wings are typically hollow, also serving as fuel tanks. They are equipped withflaps, which allow the wing to increase/decrease drag/lift, for take-off and landing, and acting in opposition, to change direction.
The fuselage is typically long and thin, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shapeaerodynamically smooth. Most fixed-wing aircraft have a single fuselage. Others may have multiple fuselages, or the fuselage may be fitted with booms on either side of the tail to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be utilized.
The fuselage typically carries theflight crew, passengers, cargo, and sometimes fuel and engine(s).Gliders typically omit fuel and engines, although some variations such asmotor gliders androcket gliders have them for temporary or optional use.
Pilots of manned commercial fixed-wing aircraft control them from inside acockpit within the fuselage, typically located at the front/top, equipped with controls, windows, and instruments, separated from passengers by a secure door. In small aircraft, the passengers typically sit behind the pilot(s) in the cabin, Occasionally, a passenger may sit beside or in front of the pilot. Largerpassenger aircraft have a separate passenger cabin or occasionally cabins that are physically separated from the cockpit.
Aircraft often have two or more pilots, with one in overall command (the "pilot") and one or more "co-pilots". On larger aircraft anavigator is typically also seated in the cockpit as well. Some military or specialized aircraft may have other flight crew members in the cockpit as well.
A flying wing is atailless aircraft that has no distinctfuselage, housing the crew, payload, and equipment inside.[35]: 224
The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the 1930s and 1940s, notably byJack Northrop andCheston L. Eshelman in the United States, andAlexander Lippisch and theHorten brothers in Germany. After the war, numerous experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept. General interest continued into the 1950s, but designs did not offer a great advantage in range and presented technical problems. The flying wing is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and drew continual interest as a tacticalairlifter design.
Interest in flying wings reemerged in the 1980s due to their potentially lowradar cross-sections.Stealth technology relies on shapes that reflect radar waves only in certain directions, thus making it harder to detect. This approach eventually led to the NorthropB-2 Spiritstealth bomber (pictured). The flying wing's aerodynamics are not the primary concern. Computer-controlledfly-by-wire systems compensated for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks, enabling an efficient and stable long-range aircraft.
Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened airfoil-shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are blended with the body.
Blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both fuselage and flying wing designs. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient, high-lift wings and a wide,airfoil-shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute tolift generation with potentially increased fuel economy.
A lifting body is a configuration in which the body produceslift. In contrast to aflying wing, which is a wing with minimal or no conventionalfuselage, a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency atsubsonic speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic,supersonic, andhypersonic flight, or,spacecraftre-entry. All of these flight regimes pose challenges for flight stability.
Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the 1960s and 1970s as a means to build small and lightweight manned spacecraft. The US built lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launched re-entry vehicles. Interest waned as theUS Air Force lost interest in the manned mission, and major development ended during theSpace Shuttle design process when it became clear that highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tanks.
The classic airfoil section wing is unstable in flight. Flexible-wing planes often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude. Some free-flying types use an adapted airfoil that is stable, or other mechanisms including electronic artificial stability.
In order to achieve trim, stability, and control, most fixed-wing types have anempennage comprising a fin and rudder that act horizontally, and a tailplane and elevator that act vertically. This is so common that it is known as the conventional layout. Sometimes two or more fins are spaced out along the tailplane.
Some types have a horizontal "canard" foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it.[35]: 86 [36][37] This foreplane may contribute to the trim, stability or control of the aircraft, or to several of these.
Kites are controlled by one or more tethers.
Gliders and airplanes have sophisticated control systems, especially if they are piloted.
The controls allow the pilot to direct the aircraft in the air and on the ground. Typically these are:
Other common controls include:
A craft may have two pilot seats with dual controls, allowing two to take turns.
The control system may allow full or partial automation, such as anautopilot, a wing leveler, or aflight management system. Anunmanned aircraft has no pilot and is controlled remotely or via gyroscopes, computers/sensors or other forms of autonomous control.
On manned fixed-wing aircraft, instruments provide information to the pilots, includingflight,engines,navigation,communications, and other aircraft systems that may be installed.
The six basic instruments, sometimes referred to as the six pack, are:[38]
Other cockpit instruments include:
Some or all of these instruments may appear on a computer display and be operated with touches, ala a phone.
In 1799 he set forth for the first time in history the concept of the modern aeroplane. Cayley had identified the drag vector (parallel to the flow) and the lift vector (perpendicular to the flow).
English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft. Cayley established the modern configuration of an aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control as early as 1799.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link), p51. Notes an agreement between ICAO and IMO that WIGs come under the jurisdiction of the International Maritime Organisation although there an exception for craft with a sustained use out of ground effect (OGE) to be considered as aircraft.
