TheGulf of Finland (Estonian:Soome laht;Finnish:Suomenlahti;Russian:Фи́нский зали́в,romanized: Finskiy zaliv;Swedish:Finska viken) is the easternmost arm of theBaltic Sea. It extends betweenFinland to the north andEstonia to the south, toSaint Petersburg - the second largest city ofRussia - to the east, where the riverNeva drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf includeHelsinki andTallinn. The eastern parts of the gulf belong to Russia, and some of Russia's most important oil harbors are located there, includingPrimorsk. As the seaway to Saint Petersburg, the gulf is of considerable strategic importance to Russia. Some of theenvironmental problems affecting the Baltic Sea are at their most pronounced in the shallow gulf. Proposals for anunderseaHelsinki–Tallinn Tunnel through the gulf have been made.
Gulf of FinlandSatellite image showing the gulf entirely frozen over in January 2003
The Gulf of Finland has an area of 30,000 km2 (12,000 sq mi).[2] The length (from theHanko Peninsula to Saint Petersburg) is 400 km (250 mi) and the width varies from 70 km (43 mi) near the entrance to 130 km (81 mi) on the meridian ofMoshchny Island; in theNeva Bay, it decreases to 12 km (7.5 mi). The gulf is relatively shallow, with the depth decreasing from the entrance to the gulf to the continent. The sharpest change occurs nearNarva-Jõesuu, which is why this place is called the Narva wall. The average depth is 38 m (125 ft) with the maximum of 115 m (377 ft). The depth of the Neva Bay is less than 6 metres (20 ft); therefore, in March 2019, a channel was dug at the bottom for safe navigation. Because of the large influx of fresh water from rivers, especially from the Neva River (two-thirds of the total runoff), the gulf water has very low salinity – between 0.2 and 0.3 ‰ at the surface and 0.3–0.5 ‰ near the bottom. The average water temperature is close to 0 °C (32 °F) in winter; in summer, it is 15–17 °C (59–63 °F) at the surface and 2–3 °C (36–37 °F) at the bottom. Parts of the gulf can freeze from late November to late April; the freezing starts in the east and gradually proceeds to the west. Complete freezing usually occurs by late January, and it may not occur in mild winters.[3]Frequent strong western winds cause waves, surges of water andfloods.[4][5]
The northern coast of the gulf is high and winding, with abundant small bays andskerries, but only a few large bays (Vyborg) and peninsulas (Hanko andPorkkalanniemi). The coast is mostly sloping; there are abundant sandy dunes, with occasional pine trees.[4] The southern shores are smooth and shallow, but along the entire coast runs a limestone escarpment, theBaltic Klint, with a height up to 55 m (180 ft).[6][7] In the east, the gulf ends with Neva Bay; in the west it merges with the Baltic Sea.
The largest rivers flowing into the gulf are theNeva (from the east), theNarva (from the south), and theKymi (from the north).Keila,Pirita,Jägala,Kunda,Luga, Sista and Kovashi flow into the gulf from the south. From the north flow theSestra River,Porvoo,Vantaa and several other small rivers. TheSaimaa Canal connects the gulf with theSaimaa lake.[8]
The modern depression can be traced to theincision of large rivers during theCenozoic prior to theQuaternary glaciation.[11] These rivers eroded the sedimentary strata above theFennoscandian Shield.[11] In particular the eroded material was made up ofEdiacaran (Vendian) andCambrian-aged claystone and sandstone.[11] As erosion progressed, the rivers encountered harder layers ofOrdovician-agedlimestone, leading to the formation of the cliffs ofBaltic Klint in northernEstonia andIngria.[11] Subsequently, the depression was somewhat reshaped by glacier activities. Its retreat formed theLittorina Sea, whose water level was some 7–9 metres higher than the present level of the Baltic Sea. Some 4,000 years ago the sea receded and shoals in the gulf have become its islands.[12][13] Later uplifting of theBaltic Shield skewed the surface of the gulf; for this reason, its ancient northern shores are significantly higher than the southern ones.[4]
The climate in the area ishumid continental climate, characterized by temperate to hot summers and cold, occasionally severe winters with regular precipitation. The vegetation is dominated by a mixture ofconiferous anddeciduous forests and treeless coastal meadows and cliffs. The major forest trees arepine,spruce,birch,willows,rowan,aspen,common andgray alder. In the far eastern part of the gulf vegetation of the marshy areas consists mainly ofbulrush andreeds, as well as fully aquatic plants, such aswhite andyellow waterlilies andacute sedge. Aquatic plants in the shallow waters of the gulf includeRuppia andspiny naiad.[14]
Many ancient sites were discovered on the shores of the gulf dated to up to 9000 years old. Humans began to inhabit these places soon after the ice age glaciers retreated and the water level of theLittorina Sea lowered to reveal the land. Remains of about 11Neolithic settlements were found since 1905 in the mouth of the riverSestra River (Leningrad Oblast). They contain arrow tips and scrapers made ofquartz, numerous food utensils and traces of fire camps – all indicative of hunting rather than agricultural oranimal husbandry activities.[7]
The gulf coast was later populated byFinnic peoples.Estonians inhabited the region of the modern Estonia,Votes were living on the south of the gulf andIzhorians to the south of Neva River.Korela tribes settled to the west ofLake Ladoga. They were engaged inslash-and-burn agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting and fishing. From the 8th to the 13th century, the Gulf of Finland and Neva were parts of the waterway fromScandinavia to theByzantine Empire.
From the 9th century, the eastern coast of the gulf was controlled byVeliky Novgorod and was calledVodskaya Pyatina. As a result of the 1219, crusade and theBattle of Lindanise, northern Estonia became part of Denmark (Danish Estonia). In the 13th century, the city of Reval (Tallinn) (Latin:Revalia) was established on the site of modern Tallinn, capital of Estonia. As a result of theEstonian uprising in 1343, northern Estonia was taken over by theTeutonic Order and sold by Denmark in 1346. In 1559, during theLivonian War, theBishop of Ösel-Wiek inOld Livonia sold his lands to KingFrederick II of Denmark. The Danish king gave the territory to his younger brother Magnus who landed onSaaremaa with an army in 1560.[16] The whole ofSaaremaa became a Danish possession in 1573, and remained so until it was transferred to Sweden in 1645.[17][18]
In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Finnish tribes on the north of the gulf were conquered by the Swedes who then proceeded to the Slavs. The first encounter is attributed to 1142 when 60 Swedish ships attacked 3 Russian merchant vessels. After a Swedish attack in 1256, the Russian army ofAlexander Nevsky crossed the frozen gulf and raided the Swedish territories in the modern Finland. In 1293, theVyborg Castle and city ofVyborg was founded by the SwedishmarshalTorkel Knutsson. The castle was fought over for decades between Sweden and theNovgorod Republic. By theTreaty of Nöteborg in 1323, Vyborg was finally recognized as a part ofSweden. It withstood a prolonged siege byDaniil Shchenya during theRusso-Swedish War of 1496–1499. The town's trade privileges werechartered by KingEric of Pomerania in 1403. Vyborg remained in Swedish hands until its capture byPeter the Great in theGreat Northern War (1710).[19]
In 1323, theTreaty of Nöteborg set the border between Sweden and Russia along the river Sestra. In the 15th century, theIzhorian lands of the Novgorod Republic were attached to theGrand Duchy of Moscow. In 1550,Gustav I of Sweden founded a city on the site of modernHelsinki.[20] As a result of the Russian defeat in theIngrian War (1610–1617) and theTreaty of Stolbovo (1617) the lands on the Gulf of Finland and Neva River became part of theSwedish Ingria. Its capital Nyen was located in the delta of Neva River.[19]
Russia reclaimed the eastern part of the gulf as a result of the victory in theGreat Northern War (1700–1721). On 16 May 1703,Saint Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva River, not far from Nyen, and in 1712 it became the capital city of Russia. To protect the city from the Swedish fleet, the Kronshlot fortress was built on an artificial island near the Kotlin Island in May 1704. By 1705, five more such forts were built nearby composing the cityKronstadt. These fortifications, nicknamed by the contemporaries "the RussianDardanelles", were designed to control the Gulf waterway.[21]
In 1710, the cities ofPeterhof andOranienbaum were founded on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland. On 27 July 1714, near theHanko Peninsula, the Russian Navy won theBattle of Gangut – a decisive victory over the Imperial Swedish Navy.[22] The Russo-Swedish war ended in 1721 by theTreaty of Nystad, by which Russia received all the lands along the Neva and the Gulf of Finland, as well asEstland,Swedish Livonia and western part of theKarelian Isthmus, including Vyborg. However, Finland was returned to Sweden.[23] Thewar resumed in (1788–1790), and theBattle of Hogland occurred on 6 July 1788 near the islandGogland. Both the battle and the war were relatively minor and indecisive, with the outcome of Russia retaining its territories.[22]
Estonia declared independence in 1918, and in 1918–1920 fought a successfulwar of independence against Soviet Russia. Estonia declared neutrality at the outbreak of World War II; however the country was repeatedly contested, invaded and occupied, first by the Soviet Union in 1940, then by Nazi Germany in 1941, and was ultimately reoccupied in 1944 by, and annexed into, the USSR as an administrative subunit (Estonian SSR). Estonia regained independence in 1991.
In March 1921, theKronstadt rebellion by sailors was put down by the Red Army. The Gulf of Finland had several major naval operations during World War II. In August 1941, during theevacuation of the Baltic Fleet from Tallinn to Kronstadt, German forces sank 15 Russian military vessels, (5destroyers, 2submarines, 3guard ships, 2minesweepers, 2gunboats and 1Motor Torpedo Boat) as well as 43 transport and support ships. Several ships still remain on the gulf bottom near Cape Juminda, and a monument was raised there in memory of those lost in the events.[25][26]
In 1978, construction was started on theSaint Petersburg Dam aiming to protect Saint Petersburg from thefrequent floods. The work was halted at 60% completion in the late 1980s, due to the financial problems related to the breakup of the Soviet Union; it was resumed in 2001 and is – as of August 2011 – complete.[4][27]
Passenger transport on the gulf includes a number of ferry lines which connect the following ports: Helsinki and Hanko (Finland),Mariehamn (Åland),Stockholm andKapellskär (Sweden), Tallinn and Paldiski (Estonia),Rostock (Germany), Saint Petersburg andKaliningrad (Russia), as well as many other cities.[31][32][33] The capitals of Estonia and Finland both face the Gulf and with Estonia joining the EU (2004) and theSchengen Area (2007), travel between those culturally and linguistically close capitals increased dramatically. In 2023 over 7 million passengers traveled by ferry between Tallinn and Helsinki.[34] There are proposals for a fixed link (bridge or tunnel) sometimes referred to with the portmanteauTalsinki.
Another major and historical activity in the gulf is fishing, especially on the northern coast near Vyborg, Primorsk and on the southern coast near Ust-Luga.[5] Commercial fish species areherring,sprats,European smelt,whitefishes,carp bream,roaches,perch,European eel,lamprey and others.[35] In 2005, the catchment was 2000 tons by the ships of Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast alone.[36]
In September 2005 the agreement was signed on the construction of theNord Stream 1 offshore gas pipeline on the Baltic Sea, from Vyborg to the German city ofGreifswald. The first line was expected become operational in 2011.[37] Afterwards, the first line of Nord Stream was laid by May 2011 and was inaugurated on 8 November 2011;[38][39] thesecond line was inaugurated on 8 October 2012,[40] and was completed in September 2021,[41] but has not entered service yet, as its approval got halted in February 2022.[42]
The bottom of the gulf is one of the world's largestship cemeteries. Because of the lowsalinity and cold waters, and noshipworms, the ships are relatively well preserved. Since the 6th century, major waterways were running through the gulf, and from the 8th to the 10th century, about 3,000 tonnes ofsilver was transported there. Later, the gulf was actively used by Sweden and Russia for transport of goods. Every year saw dozens of lost ships. In the fall of 1743, 17 Russian warships returning from Finland sank in just 7 hours, and in the summer of 1747, 26 merchant vessels sank within 4 hours near Narva. A record was set in 1721 when during the evacuation of Russian troops from Finland, more than 100 vessels were lost within 3 months, including 64 in a single night.[43]
By the end of 1996, about 5,000 submerged objects were identified in the Russian part of the gulf, including 2,500 ships, 1,500 airplanes, and small items such as boats,anchors, tanks, tractors, cars, cannons, and evennaval mines,aerial bombs, torpedoes, and other ammunition. The ships belonged to Russia (25%), Germany (19%), United Kingdom (17%), Sweden (15%), Netherlands (8%), and Finland (7%). The remaining 9% are from Norway, Denmark, France, United States, Italy, Estonia, and Latvia.[44] These objects present potential hazards to navigation, fishery, coastal construction, laying of submarine pipelines and cables, and the environment. Mines were laid in the gulf duringWorld War I (38,932 units), theRussian Civil War, and theWinter War (1939–1940), with an estimated total number of 60,000; 85,000 more mines were set during World War II, and only a fraction of all those were eliminated after the wars.[45][46]
The ecological condition of the Gulf of Finland, Neva Bay and Neva River is unsatisfactory. There is significant contamination by ions ofmercury andcopper, organochlorinepesticides,phenols,petroleum products andpolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Cleaning of waste water in Saint Petersburg was started in 1979 and by 1997 about 74% of wastewater was purified. This number rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and as of 2009 was expected to reach 100% by 2011 with the completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant.[47] Nevertheless, in 2008, the Federal Service of Saint Petersburg announced that no beach of Saint Petersburg is fit for swimming.[48]
Fish catchment decreased 10 times between 1989 and 2005. Apart from pollution, another reason for that is hydraulic and engineering works. For example, construction of new ports in Ust-Luga and Vysotsk and onVasilyevsky Island adversely affected thespawning of fish.Extraction of sand and gravel in the Neva Bay for the land reclamation destroy spawning sites ofEuropean smelt.[36]
Construction of theSaint Petersburg Dam reduced water exchange of the Neva Bay with the eastern part of the gulf by 10–20% that increased the contamination level of Neva Bay. The largest changes occur within 5 km (3 mi) from the dam. Some shallow areas between Saint Petersburg and the dam are turning into swamps. Waterlogging and the associated rotting of plants may eventually lead toeutrophication of the area.[49] Also worrying is expansion of oil ports in the gulf[49] and the construction of a treatment center for spent fuel from theLeningrad Nuclear Power Plant.[50]
The port ofKronstadt is currently serving as a transit point for the import in Russia ofradioactive waste through the Baltic Sea. The waste, mostlydepleted uranium hexafluoride, is further transported through Saint Petersburg toNovouralsk,Angarsk and other cities of eastern Russia. Thistransit point will be moved from Saint Petersburg to the portUst-Luga, which is about 110 kilometres (68 mi) west of Saint Petersburg, and within theBorder Security Zone of Russia, as decided by the Russian government in 2003 (Order No. 1491-r of 14 October 2003). It is expected that after this completes it should reduce the ecological risks for Saint Petersburg.[51] Ust-Luga is envisioned to be the largest transportation and logistics hub in northwestern Russia.[52][53][54] However, in 2015 it was reported that some construction plans in Ust-Luga were frozen, and the construction of Ust-Luga Multimodal Complex, supposed to be the transit point for radioactive waste, never started.[55]
^"East Viru Klint".North Estonian Klint as a symbol of Estonian nature. Ministry of the Environment. Archived fromthe original on 12 November 2009. Retrieved6 October 2009.
^abKhazanovich K. (1982).Geological Monuments of Leningrad Oblast. Lenizdat.
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