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This article lists forms ofgovernment andpolitical systems, which are notmutually exclusive, and often have much overlap.[1] According toYale professorJuan José Linz there are three main types of political systems today:democracies,totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two,authoritarian regimes withhybrid regimes.[2][3] Another modern classification system includesmonarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.[4] Scholars generally refer to adictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.[5][2][6]
The ancient Greek philosopherPlato discusses in theRepublic five types of regimes:aristocracy,timocracy,oligarchy,democracy, andtyranny.[7] The question raised by Plato in theRepublic: What kind of state is best? Generational changes informed by new political and cultural beliefs, technological progress, values and morality over millenniums have resulted in considerable shifts in the belief about the origination of political authority, who may participate in matters of state, how people might participate, the determination of what is just, and so forth.
| Democratic | Direct Democracy,Representative Democracy (Republic Government,Parliamentary Government),Constitutional monarchy |
| Non-Democratic | Authoritarian,Totalitarian,Oligarchy,Technocracy,Theocracy,Dictatorship,Absolute monarchy |
| Other Types | Communist,Colonialist,Aristocratic |
Index of Forms of Government.[1]
| Term | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Confederation | A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign states, united for purposes of common action often in relation to other states. Usually created by atreaty, confederations of states are usually established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with thegeneral government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederation represents a main form of inter-governmental-ism, this being defined as "any form of interaction between states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government." Confederation is almost as a federation with the federal government being as a combination or alliance of all the states. |
|
| Federation | A federation (also known as a federal state) is apolitical entity characterized by aunion of partiallyself-governing states or regions under a central (federal) government. In a federation, the self-governing status of the component states, as well as the division of power between them and the central government, is typically constitutionally entrenched and may not be altered by a unilateral decision of either party, the states or the federal political body. Alternatively, federation is a form of government in which sovereign power is formally divided between a central authority and a number of constituent regions so that each region retains some degree of control over its internal affairs. | |
| Unitary state | A unitary state is astate governed as a single power in which thecentral government is ultimately supreme and anyadministrative divisions (sub-national units) exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. The majority of states in the world have a unitary system of government. Of the 193UN member states, 165 are governed as unitary states. |
| Term | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Autocracy | Autocracy is asystem of government in which supremepower (social and political) is concentrated in the hands of one person orpolity, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of acoup d'état or massinsurrection).Absolute monarchies (such asKingdom of Saudi Arabia, theUnited Arab Emirates,Oman,Brunei andEswatini) anddictatorships are the main modern-day forms of autocracy. In family dictatorships, political power is passed down within one family because of the overwhelming authority of the leader. For example, inHaiti a form of hereditary dictatorship was founded byFrançois Duvalier (Papa Doc); it operated much like an absolute monarchy, yet within a nominally republican state. In 1971,Jean-Claude Duvalier (Baby Doc) became Haiti's nextdictator for life after his father's death. Both totalitarian and military dictatorships are often identified with, but need not be, an autocracy. |
|
| Oligarchy | Oligarchy, meaning "rule of the few", is a form ofpower structure in whichpower rests with a small number of people. These people might be distinguished bynobility,wealth,family ties,education orcorporate,religious ormilitary control. Such states are often controlled by families who typically pass their influence from onegeneration to the next, butinheritance is not a necessary condition for the application of this term. | |
| Democracy | Democracy, meaning "rule of the people", is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as aparliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as "rule of the majority". Democracy is a system of processing conflicts in which outcomes depend on what participants do, but no single force controls what occurs and its outcomes. This does include citizens being able to vote for different laws and leaders. | |
| Anarchy | Sometimes said to be non-governance; it is a structure which strives for non-hierarchical, voluntary associations among agents, emphasizingautonomy anddecentralization, often employingdirect democracy orconsensus democracy. Systems resembling anarchism can be a natural, temporary result of civil war in a country, when an established state has been destroyed and the region is in a transitional period without definitive leadership.[9] It has also been proposed as a historical state of human society, especially before the concentration of power afforded by agriculture.[10] It has been presented as a viable long-term choice by individuals known asanarchists who oppose the state and other forms ofcoercive hierarchies. These systems are often highly organized, and include institutional or cultural systems to prevent the concentration of power. Anarchism typically advocates for social organization in non-hierarchical,voluntary associations where peoplevoluntarily help each other.[11] There are a variety of forms of anarchy that attempt to discourage the use of coercion, violence, force and authority, while still producing a productive and desirable society. |
|
| Term | Description | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Demarchy | Government in which the state is governed byrandomly selected decision from a broadly inclusive pool of eligible citizens. These groups, sometimes termed "policy juries", "citizens' juries", or "consensus conferences", deliberately make decisions about public policies in much the same way thatjuries decide criminal cases. Demarchy, in theory, could overcome some of the functional problems of conventionalrepresentative democracy, which is widely subject to manipulation byspecial interests and a division between professional policymakers (politicians and lobbyists) vs. a largely passive, uninvolved and often uninformed electorate. According to Australian philosopherJohn Burnheim, random selection of policymakers would make it easier for everyday citizens to meaningfully participate, and harder for special interests to corrupt the process. More generally, random selection of decision makers from a larger group is known assortition (from the Latin base for lottery). TheAthenian democracy made much use of sortition, with nearly all government offices filled by lottery (of full citizens) rather than by election. Candidates were almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of wealth and status. |
|
| Census democracy | It is the suffrage in which the right to vote is restricted to only a part of the population, being in many cases wealthy class. This was the case in almost all existing democracies of the 18th and 19th centuries, although in the latter the right to vote was given to theworking class and thelower middle class in countries like Great Britain, later in the 20th century theuniversal suffrage with the advent of voting rights for all people of the age of majority. | |
| Direct democracy | Government in which the people represent themselves and vote directly for new laws and public policy. |
|
| Electocracy | A form ofrepresentative democracy where citizens are able to vote for their government but cannot participate directly in governmental decision making. The government has almost absolute power. |
|
| Ergatocracy | Rule by theproletariat, the workers, or the working class. Examples of ergatocracy include communist revolutionaries and rebels who control most of society and establish an alternative economy for people and workers. SeeDictatorship of the proletariat. | |
| Herrenvolk democracy | Aform of government in which only a specific ethnic group participates in government, while other ethnic groups are disenfranchised. Though elections may be free, voting suffrage is restricted based on race, with governance reflecting the interests of the politically dominant racial group. |
|
| Liberal democracy | A form of government in whichrepresentative democracy operates under the principles ofliberalism. It is characterised by fair, free, and competitiveelections betweenmultiple distinctpolitical parties, aseparation of powers into differentbranches of government, therule of law in everyday life as part of anopen society, and the protection ofhuman rights andcivil liberties for all persons. To define the system in practice, liberal democracies often draw upon aconstitution, either formally written oruncodified, to delineate the powers of government and enshrine thesocial contract. After a period of sustained expansion throughout the 20th century, liberal democracy became the predominant political system in the world. A liberal democracy may take various constitutional forms: it may be arepublic, such asEstonia,Ireland,Germany, andGreece; or aconstitutional monarchy, such as theUnited Kingdom,Japan orSpain. It may have apresidential system (such asChile, theDominican Republic, or theUnited States), asemi-presidential system (such asCape Verde,France, orPortugal), aparliamentary system (such asAustralia,Germany,Italy,Slovenia,India orNew Zealand) ordirectorial system (such asSwitzerland). | |
| Liquid democracy | Government in which the people represent themselves or choose to temporarily delegate their vote to another voter to vote for new laws and public policy. | Experiments have mostly been conducted on a local level or exclusively through online platforms, such as byPirate Parties |
| Representative democracy | Wherein the people or citizens of a country elect representatives to create and implement public policy in place ofdirect participation by the people. | Almost all current democratic governments |
| Social democracy | Elements of direct and representative democracies are combined in a form ofparticipatory democracy. It also adopts amixed economy combining the principles of afree-market andeconomic orsocial interventionism. Social democracy rejects the "either/or" phobiocratic/polarization interpretation of capitalism versus socialism. Social democracy argues that all citizens should be legally entitled to certain social rights. These are made up of universal access to public services such as: education, health care, workers' compensation, public transportation, and other services including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers. Contemporary social democracy advocates freedom from discrimination based on differences of: ability/disability, age, ethnicity, sex, language, religion, and social class. | |
| Soviet democracy | The citizens are governed by directly elected councils. The councils are directly responsible to their electors and are bound by their instructions. Such an imperative mandate is in contrast to a free mandate, in which the elected delegates are only responsible to their conscience. Delegates may accordingly be dismissed from their post at any time or be voted out (recall). |
|
| Totalitarian democracy | A form of electocracy in which lawfully elected representatives maintain the integrity of a nation state whose citizens, while granted the right to vote, have little or no participation in the decision-making process of the government. | |
| Electoral autocracy | Ahybrid regime, in which democratic institutions are imitative and adhere to authoritarian methods. In these regimes, regular elections are held, but they fail to reach democratic standards of freedom and fairness. | |
| Trigonocracy | Ahybrid regime consisting of direct democracy, technocracy of lobbyists, and a meritocratic principle. This form of state, according toSam May, demands five political powers, including the known three (Legislative,Executive, andJudiciary) as well as the so-called Monecative for supverision of finances and Mediacative for integrity and independence of the media.This type of government is solely theoretical, as no state has implemented trigonocracy yet. | |
| Digital democracy | The historical scaling problem and inherent inefficiencies of democracy may be resolved with advances in technology, most especially the rise of the Internet. In a digital democracy, specific questions would be formulated as referendums, and frequently put forth for public discussion and comment and voting. Citizens could read the arguments, proffer their own, and vote on the matter, using readily-available technologies like smartphones. |
Oligarchies are societies controlled and organised by a smallclass of privileged people, with no intervention from the most part of society; this small elite is defined as sharing some common trait.
De jure democratic governments with ade facto oligarchy are ruled by a small group of segregated, powerful or influential people who usually share similar interests or family relations. These people may spread power and elect candidates equally or not equally. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or monarchic. An oligarchy does not have one clear ruler but several rulers. (Ancient Greek ὀλιγαρχία (oligarkhía) literally meant "rule by few")
Some historical examples of oligarchy include theRoman Republic, in which only males of the nobility could run for office and only wealthy males could vote, and theAthenian democracy, which usedsortition to elect candidates, almost always male, Greek, educated citizens holding a minimum of land, wealth and status. Some critics ofcapitalism and/orrepresentative democracy think ofthe United States and the United Kingdom as oligarchies.
These categories are not exclusive.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Aristocracy | Rule by the nobility; a system of governance where political power is in the hands of a small class of privileged individuals who claim a higher birth than the rest of society.[16] |
| Geniocracy | A term invented by the founder ofRaëlism and meaning rule by the intelligent; a system of governance where creativity, innovation, intelligence and wisdom are required for those who wish to govern. Comparable tonoocracy. |
| Hamarchy | The joint rule of different regions retaining their individuality; a system of government consisting of many distinct or independent parts that rule together.[17][18][full citation needed] |
| Kraterocracy | Rule by the strong; a system of governance where those who are strong enough to seize power through physical force, social maneuvering or political cunning.[19] |
| Kritarchy | Rule by various judges, thekritarchs; a system of governance composed of law-enforcement institutions in which the state and thelegal systems are traditionally orconstitutionally the same entity. The kritarchs, magistrates and other adjudicators have the legal power to legislate and administer the enforcement of government laws in addition to the interposition of laws and the resolution of disputes. (Not to be confused with"judiciary" or"judicial system".)Somalia, ruled by judges with the tradition ofxeer,[20] as well as theIslamic Courts Union, is a historical example.[21] |
| Meritocracy | Rule by the meritorious; a system of governance where groups are selected predicated on their ability, knowledge in a given area, and contributions to society. |
| Netocracy | Rule by the digitally literate; a term invented by the editorial board of the American technology magazineWired in the early 1990s. A portmanteau of "Internet" and "aristocracy", "netocracy" refers to a perceived global upper-class that bases its power on a technological advantage and networking skills, in comparison to what is portrayed as a bourgeoisie of a gradually diminishing importance. The netocracy concept has been compared withRichard Florida's concept of thecreative class. Bard and Söderqvist have also defined an under-class in opposition to thenetocracy, which they refer to as the "consumtariat".[22] |
| Noocracy | Rule by the wise; a system of governance in which decision making is in the hands of philosophers (as advocated byPlato) |
| Plutocracy | Rule by the wealthy; a system wherein governance is indebted to, dependent upon or heavily influenced by the desires of the rich. Plutocratic influence can alter any form of government. For instance, if a significant number of elected representative positions in a republic are dependent upon financial support from wealthy sources, it is a plutocratic republic. |
| Particracy | Rule by a dominantpolitical party (or parties). |
| Stratocracy | Rule by military service; a system of governance composed of military government in which the state and the military are traditionally orconstitutionally the same entity.[23][24] Citizens with mandatory or voluntary active military service or who have been honorably discharged have the right to govern. (Therefore, stratocracy is not to be confused with "military junta" or "military dictatorship".) TheSpartancity-state is a historical example;[25] its social system and constitution were completely focused on military training and excellence. Stratocratic ideology often attaches to the honor-orientedtimocracy. |
| Synarchism | Rule by a secret élite; a form of government where political power effectively rests with a secret élite, in contrast to an oligarchy where the élite is or could be known by the public. |
| Technocracy | Rule by the educated or by technical experts; a system of governance where people who are skilled in their respective areas of expertise control decision-making. In a technocracy, experts in the technical details of specific issues are presumed to best understand the problems at hand, as well as how various technological redresses can improve the society at large. Doctors, engineers, scientists, professionals and technologists who have prowess would compose the governing body instead of politicians, businessmen and economists.[26] In a technocracy, decision-makers would be selected based upon how knowledgeable and skilful they are in their field. Technocracy is today represented by global algorithmic governance by Silicon Valley engineers. This recent form of technocracy has been called 'digitocracy'.[27] |
| Theocracy | Rule by a religious elite; a system of governance composed of religious institutions in which the state and the church are traditionally orconstitutionally the same entity.[28]The Vatican (seePope),[29]Iran andAfghanistan (seeSupreme Leader),[30]caliphates and otherIslamic states are historically considered[citation needed]theocracies. Theocracy contrasts withcaesaropapism, a form of government in which church and state form an alliance dominated by the secular power.[31] |
| Timocracy | Rule by thehonourable; a system of governance ruled by honorable citizens and property-owners.Socrates defines a timocracy as a government ruled by people who love honour and who are selected according to the degree of honour they hold in society. This form of timocracy is very similar tomeritocracy, in the sense that individuals of outstanding character or faculty are placed in the seat of power. |
Autocracies are ruled by a single entity with absolute power, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regular mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for implicit threat). That entity may be an individual, as in adictatorship or it may be a group, as in aone-party state. The worddespotism means to "rule in the fashion of despots" and is often used to describe autocracy.
Historical examples of autocracy include theRoman Empire,North Korea, theIslamic Emirate of Afghanistan,Eritrea andNazi Germany.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Civilian dictatorship | A dictatorship where power resides in the hands of one single person orpolity. That person may be, for example, anabsolute monarch or adictator, but can also be an electedpresident. TheRoman Republic made dictators to lead during times of war; but the Roman dictators only held power for a small time. In modern times, an autocrat's rule is one that is not stopped by any rules of law,constitutions, or other social and political institutions. After World War II, many governments in Latin America, Asia, and Africa were ruled by autocratic governments. Examples of dictators includeJoseph Stalin,Mao Zedong,Adolf Hitler,Benito Mussolini and theKim dynasty ofNorth Korea founded byKim Il Sung. |
| Military dictatorship | A dictatorship primarily enforced by the military. Military dictators are different fromcivilian dictators for a number of reasons: their motivations for seizing power, the institutions through which they organize their rule, and the ways in which they leave power. Often viewing itself as saving the nation from the corrupt or myopic civilian politicians, a military dictatorship justifies its position as "neutral" arbiters on the basis of their membership within the armed forces. For example, many juntas adopt titles, such as "National Redemption Council", "Committee of National Restoration", or "National Liberation Committee". Military leaders often rule as ajunta, selecting one of them as the head. |
Regardless of the form of government, the actual governance may be influenced by sectors withpolitical power which are not part of the formal government. These are terms that highlight certain actions of the governors, such ascorruption,demagoguery, orfear mongering that may disrupt the intended way of working of the government if they are widespread enough.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Banana republic | A politically unstable and kleptocratic government that economically depends upon the exports of a limited resource (fruits, minerals), and usually features a society composed ofstratifiedsocial classes, such as a great, impoverished ergatocracy and a ruling plutocracy, composed of the aristocracy of business, politics, and the military.[32] Inpolitical science, the termbanana republic denotes a country dependent upon limitedprimary-sector productions, which is ruled by aplutocracy who exploit the national economy by means of a politico-economicoligarchy.[33] InAmerican literature, the termbanana republic originally denoted the fictionalRepublic of Anchuria, a servile dictatorship that abetted, or supported forkickbacks, the exploitation of large-scale plantation agriculture, especially banana cultivation.[33] In U.S. politics, the termbanana republic is a pejorative political descriptor coined by the American writerO. Henry inCabbages and Kings (1904), a book of thematically related short stories derived from his 1896–1897 residence inHonduras, where he was hiding from U.S. law for bankembezzlement.[34] |
| Bankocracy | Rule by banks;[35] a system of governance with excessive power or influence of banks and other financial authorities on public policy-making. It can also refer to a form of government where financial institutions rule society. |
| Corporatocracy | Rule by corporations; a system of governance where an economic and political system is controlled by corporations or corporate interests.[36] Its use is generally pejorative. Examples includecompany rule in India, and the business voters for theCity of London Corporation. |
| Kakistocracy | Rule by the worst; a system of government where the least-qualified citizens govern or dictate policies.[37] |
| Kleptocracy | Rule by thieves; a system of governance where its officials and the ruling class in general pursue personal wealth and political power at the expense of the wider population. In strict terms kleptocracy is not a form of government but a characteristic of a government engaged in such behavior. |
| Nepotocracy | Rule by nephews;favouritism granted torelatives regardless ofmerit; a system of governance in which importance is given to the relatives of those already in power, like anephew (where the word comes from). In such governments even if the relatives aren't qualified they are given positions of authority just because they know someone who already has authority.[38]Pope Alexander VI (Borgia) was accused of this.[39] |
| Ochlocracy | Rule by the crowd; a system of governance where mob rule is government by mob or a mass of people, or theintimidation of legitimate authorities. As a pejorative formajoritarianism, it is akin to theLatin phrasemobile vulgus meaning "the fickle crowd", from which the English term "mob" was originally derived in the 1680s. Ochlocratic governments are often a democracy spoiled bydemagoguery, "tyranny of the majority" and the rule of passion over reason; such governments can be as oppressive as autocratic tyrants. Ochlocracy is synonymous in meaning and usage to the modern, informal term "mobocracy". |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Adhocracy | Rule by a government based on relatively disorganized principles and institutions as compared to abureaucracy, its exact opposite. |
| Anocracy | A regime type where power is not vested in public institutions (as in a normal democracy) but spread amongst elite groups who are constantly competing with each other for power. Examples of anocracies in Africa include the warlords ofSomalia and the shared governments insamaya andZimbabwe. Anocracies are situated midway between anautocracy and ademocracy.[40] ThePolity IV dataset recognizes anocracy as a category. In that dataset, anocracies are exactly in the middle between autocracies and democracies. Often the word is defined more broadly. For example, a 2010International Alert publication defined anocracies as "countries that are neither autocratic nor democratic, most of which are making the risky transition between autocracy and democracy".[41] Alert noted that the number of anocracies had increased substantially since the end of the Cold War. Anocracy is not surprisingly the least resilient political system to short-term shocks: it creates the promise but not yet the actuality of an inclusive and effective political economy, and threatens members of the established elite; and is therefore very vulnerable to disruption and armed violence. |
| Authoritarianism | Rule by an autocracy or oligarchy with a power source predicated on a political party or stratocracy; characterized by the rejection ofpolitical plurality. |
| Band society | Rule by a government based on small (usually family) unit with a semi-informal hierarchy, with strongest (either physical strength or strength of character) as leader. |
| Bureaucracy | Rule by a system of governance with many bureaus, administrators, and petty officials. |
| Consociationalism | Rule by a government based on consensus democracy. |
| Military junta | Rule by a committee of military leaders. |
| Nomocracy | Rule by a government under the sovereignty of rational laws and civic right as opposed to one under theocratic systems of government. In a nomocracy, ultimate and final authority (sovereignty) exists in the law. |
| Cyberocracy | Rule by a computer, which decides based on computer code and efficient use of information. This is closely linked to Cybersynacy. This type of ruling appears in the short story "The Machine Stops" by E. M. Forster. |
| Algocracy | Rule by algorithms used in diverse levels of bureaucracy, which is also known as algorithmic regulation, regulation by algorithms, algorithmic governance, algorithmic legal order of government by algorithm. |
| Isocracy | A country where everyone has equal political power. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Monarchy | A monarchy is aform of government in which a group, generally a family representing adynasty, embodies the country'snational identity and its head, themonarch, exercises the role of sovereignty. The actual power of the monarch may vary from purely symbolic (crowned republic), to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy), to completely autocratic (absolute monarchy). Traditionally the monarch's post isinherited and lasts until death or abdication. In contrast,elective monarchies require the monarch to be elected. Both types have further variations as there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy. For example, in some[which?]elected monarchies only pedigrees are taken into account for eligibility of the next ruler, whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, mental capacity, etc. Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whoselegitimacy is subject to effective election. There have been cases where the term of a monarch'sreign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved: an invasion being repulsed, for instance. |
| Republic | A republic (Latin:res publica) is aform of government in which the country is considered a "public matter", not theprivate concern or property of the rulers. The primary positions of power within a republic are not inherited, but are attained through elections expressing theconsent of the governed. Such leadership positions are therefore expected to fairly represent the citizen body. It is a form of government under which the head of state is not amonarch. In American English, the definition of a republic can also refer specifically to a government in which elected individuals represent the citizen body, also known as arepresentative democracy (ademocratic republic) and exercise power according to therule of law (aconstitutional republic). |
Countries withmonarchy attributes are those where a family or group of families (rarely another type of group), called theroyalty, represents national identity, with power traditionally assigned to one of its individuals, called the monarch, who mostly rule kingdoms. The actual role of the monarch and other members of royalty varies from purely symbolical (crowned republic) to partial and restricted (constitutional monarchy) to completely despotic (absolute monarchy). Traditionally and in most cases, the post of the monarch isinherited, but there are alsoelective monarchies where the monarch is elected.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute monarchy | A traditional and historical system where the monarch exercises ultimate governing authority ashead of state andhead of government. Many nations of Europe during theMiddle Ages were absolute monarchies. Modern examples include mainly Islamic countries such asSaudi Arabia,UAE,Oman,Brunei and one African country,Eswatini. |
| Constitutional monarchy | Also called parliamentary monarchy, the monarch's powers are limited by law or by a formalconstitution,[42][43] usually assigning them to those of thehead of state. Many modern developed countries, including theUnited Kingdom,Norway,Netherlands,Australia,Canada,Spain andJapan, are constitutional monarchy systems. |
| Crowned republic | A form of government where the monarch (and family) is an official ceremonial entity with no political power. The royal family and the monarch are intended to represent the country and may perform speeches or attend an important ceremonial events as a symbolical guide to the people, but hold no actual power in decision-making, appointments,et cetera. |
| Elective monarchy | A form of government where the monarch is elected, a modern example being theKing of Cambodia, who is chosen by theRoyal Council of the Throne;Vatican City is also often considered a modern elective monarchy. |
| Self-proclaimed monarchy | A form of government where the monarch claims a monarch title without a nexus to the previous monarchdynasty. Modern self-proclaimed monarchies include the micronationPrincipality of Seborga claiming 14 square kilometres (5.4 sq mi) of Italy. |
Rule by a form of government in which the people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.[44][45] A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.[46][47]Montesquieu included bothdemocracies, where all the people have a share in rule, andaristocracies oroligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.[48]
These categories are not exclusive.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Classical republic | Classical antiquity civilizations typically followed a republican model with a complex system of assemblies and magistrates, all drawing upon the idea of a "civic" sector—a representative sample of particular populations. In a classical republic, power rests with selected individuals who represent the citizenry (or more usually a limited sector thereof) and who rule in accordance with mutually agreed-upon law. |
| Constitutional republic | Republics where the government's powers are limited by law or a formalconstitution (an official document establishing the exact powers and restrictions of a nation and its government), and in which the leaders are chosen by a vote amongst the populace. Typically, laws cannot be passed which violate said constitution, unless the constitution itself is altered by law. This theoretically serves to protect minority groups from being subjected to thetyranny of the majority, ormob rule. Examples includeIndia,South Africa,United States, etc. |
| Democratic republic | Republics where the laws are ultimately decided by popular vote, whether by a body of elected representatives or directly by the public, and there is no restriction on which laws are passed so long as they have majority support. Constitutional law is either non-existent or poses little obstacle to legislation. |
| Federal republic | Republics that are a federation of states or provinces, where there is a national (federal) law encompassing the nation as a whole but where each state or province is free to legislate and enforce its own laws and affairs so long as they do not conflict with federal law. Examples includeArgentina,Austria,Brazil,Germany,India,Mexico,Russia,Switzerland,United States and Nigeria. |
| Islamic republic | Republics purporting to be governed in accordance with Islamic law.Islamic Republic of Iran,Mauritania, andIslamic Republic of Pakistan are self-described Islamic republics (as of 2022).Afghanistan,Federal Islamic Republic of the Comoros and theTurkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan were Islamic republics at one time but are no more. |
| Parliamentary republic | Republics, likeIndia orSingapore, with an elected head of state, but where the head of state and head of government are kept separate with the head of government retaining most executive powers, or a head of state akin to a head of government, elected by a parliament. |
| Presidential republic | Republics with an elected head of state, where the head of state is also the head of the government. Examples include theUnited States,Mexico,Brazil,Nigeria andIndonesia. |
| People's republic | Republics that include countries likeChina andVietnam that arede jure governed for and by the people. The termPeople's Republic is used to differentiate themselves from the earlier republic of their countries before the people's revolution, like the Republic of China. |
| Semi-presidential republic | A semi-presidential republic is a government system with power divided between a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government, used in countries likeFrance,Portugal, andEgypt. The president, elected by the people, symbolizes national unity and foreign policy while the prime minister is appointed by the president or elected by the parliament and handles daily administration. The termsemi-presidential distinguishes this system from presidential and parliamentary systems. |
| Directorial republic | A directorial republic is a government system with power divided among a college of several people who jointly exercise the powers of a head of state and/or a head of government. |
| Merchant republic | In the early Renaissance, a number of small, wealthy, trade-based city-states embraced republican ideals, notably across Italy and the Baltic. In general, these mercantile republics arose in regions of Europe where feudal control by an absolutist monarchy was minimal or absent completely. In these mercantile republics, the leaders were elected by the citizenry with the primary duty of increasing the city-state's collective wealth. |
Many political systems can be described as socioeconomic ideologies. Experience with those movements in power and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.
These categories are not exclusive.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anarchism | A system that advocatesself-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described asstateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical orfree associations, while others have advocated for stateless societies with the inclusion ofprivate property, property rights and hierarchical groups, so long as membership and association with those groups are entirelyvoluntary. Anarchism holds thestate to be undesirable, unnecessary and/or harmful. |
| Capitalism | A system in which themeans of production (machines, tools, factories, etc.) are owned by private individuals, workers then negotiate with those individuals to use those means of production in exchange for a portion of what they produce, usually in the form of capital (money). The owners of themeans of production are entitled to whatever portion of the products of the workers' labor that is agreed upon by the two parties. |
| Colonialism | A system in which a native group (or their lands and resources) is subjugated by an external political power for their own economic and/or political benefit. |
| Communism | A socialist system in which the means of production are commonly owned (either by the people directly, through the commune, or by acommunist state orsociety), and production is undertakenfor use, rather thanfor profit.[49][50] Communist society is thus, in theory,stateless,classless, moneyless, — it is usually regarded as the "final form" of a socialist or anarchist society. |
| Despotism | A system in which the laws and resources of a nation are controlled by one individual, usually amonarch ordictator, who holds absolute political power. Examples include thepharaohs ofAncient Egypt, theRoman emperors and theNorth Korean supreme leaders. |
| Distributism | A variant of capitalism which views widespreadproperty ownership as fundamental right;[51] themeans of production are spread as widely as possible rather than being centralized under the control of the state (as instate socialism), or a few individuals/corporations (as in what proponents of distributism call "crony capitalism")[52] Distributism fundamentally opposessocialism andcapitalism,[53][54] which distributists view as equally flawed and exploitative. In contrast, distributism seeks to subordinate economic activity to human life as a whole, to our spiritual life, our intellectual life, our family life".[55] |
| Feudalism | A system of land ownership and duties common toMedieval Europe andFeudal Japan. Under feudalism, all the land in a kingdom belonged to the king or emperor. However, the king/emperor would give some of the land to the lords or nobles who fought for him. These presents of land were called manors. Then the nobles gave some of their land to vassals. The vassals then had to do duties for the nobles. The lands of vassals were called fiefs. A similar system is theIqta‘, used by medievalIslamic societies of the middle east and north Africa. This functioned much like the feudal system but generally had titles that weren't granted to a family dynasty but to individuals at the behest of the sultan and generally only required a tax from the lower classes, instead of military service and/or manual labour like in the feudal system. |
| Minarchism | A variant ofcapitalism which advocates for thestate to exist solely to provide a very small number of services. A popular model of the State proposed by minarchists is known as thenight-watchman state, in which the only governmental functions are to protect citizens fromaggression,theft,breach of contract, andfraud as defined byproperty laws, limiting it to three institutions: themilitary, thepolice, andcourts. |
| Monarchism | A system in which the government is headed by an agreed upon head of thenobility who is known as themonarch, usually in the form of aking oremperor (but also less commonly aqueen or empress). In most monarchical systems the position of monarch is oneinherited from a previous ruler bybloodline or marriage, but in other cases it may be a position elected by thenobility themselves, as was the case in the ancientRoman Kingdom and the medievalHoly Roman Empire. |
| Republicanism | A system in which the laws and governmental policies of the state are considered a "public matter" and decided by the citizens of the society, whoever they may be. Most modern nation-states are examples of republics, but other examples include those of ancientRome andAthens. |
| Socialism | A system in whichworkers, democratically and/orsocially own themeans of production.[56] The economic framework may bedecentralized andself-managed in autonomous economic units, as inlibertarian systems, orcentrallyplanned, as inauthoritarian systems.[57]Public services such ashealthcare andeducation would becommonly,collectively, and/orstate owned. |
| Totalitarianism | A system in which opposition is prohibited, civil rights are extremely suppressed and virtually all aspects of social life, including the economy, morals, public and private lives of citizens, are controlled by a centralizedauthoritarianstate that holds absolute political power, usually under adictatorship orsingle political party.[58] Five examples are theSoviet Union (1927–53),Nazi Germany (1933–1945),Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,Eritrea andNorth Korea. |
| Tribalism | A system based on a small complex society of varying degrees of centralisation that is led by an individual known as a chief. |
Governments can also be categorized based on their size and scope of influence:
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| National government | Thegovernment of anation-state and is a characteristic of aunitary state. This is the same thing as afederal government which may have distinct powers at various levels authorized or delegated to it by its member states, though the adjective 'central' is sometimes used to describe it. The structure of central governments varies. Many countries have created autonomous regions by delegating powers from the central government to governments at a sub national level, such as a regional, state or local level. Based on a broad definition of a basic political system, there are two or more levels of government that exist within an established territory and govern through common institutions with overlapping or shared powers as prescribed by aconstitution or other law. |
| City-state | Asovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such asRome,Athens,Carthage, and theItalian city-states during theRenaissance. Today only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies currently toHong Kong,Macau,Singapore,Monaco, andVatican City. City states are also sometimes calledmicro-states which however also includes other configurations of very small countries. |
| Commune | From theMedieval Latincommunia. Anintentional community of people living together, sharing common interests, often having common values and beliefs, as well as sharedproperty, possessions,resources, and, in some communes,work,income orassets. |
| Intergovernmental organisations | Also known as international governmental organizations (IGOs): the type of organization most closely associated with the term 'international organization', these are organizations that are made up primarily ofsovereign states (referred to asmember states). Notable examples include theUnited Nations (UN),Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC),Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE),Council of Europe (COE),International Labour Organization (ILO) andInternational Police Organization (INTERPOL). The UN has used the term "intergovernmental organization" instead of "international organization" for clarity. |
| World government | The notion of a commonpolitical authority for all of humanity, yielding a globalgovernment and a singlestate that exercisesauthority over the entireEarth. Such a government could come into existence either through violent and compulsoryworld domination or through peaceful and voluntarysupranational union. |
Certain major characteristics are defining of certain types; others are historically associated with certain types of government.
This list focuses on differing approaches that political systems take to the distribution ofsovereignty, and theautonomy of regions within the state.
These have no conclusive historical or current examples outside of speculation and scholarly debate.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Corporate republic | Theoreticalform of government occasionally hypothesised in works ofscience fiction, though some historical nations such as medievalFlorence might be said to have been governed as corporate republics. The colonialmegacorporations such as theDutch East India Company should possibly be considered corporate states, being semi-sovereign with the power to wage war and establish colonies. While retaining some semblance ofrepublican government, a corporate republic would berun primarily like a business, involving aboard of directors andexecutives.Utilities, includinghospitals,schools, themilitary, and thepolice force, would beprivatised. Thesocial welfare function carried out by the state is instead carried out by corporations in the form of benefits to employees. Although corporate republics do not exist officially in the modern world, they are often used in works of fiction orpolitical commentary as a warning of the perceived dangers of unbridledcapitalism. In such works, they usually arise when a single, vastly powerful corporation deposes a weak government, over time or in acoup d'état. Some political scientists have also consideredstate socialist nations to be forms of corporate republics, with the state assuming full control of all economic and political life and establishing a monopoly on everything within national boundaries – effectively making the state itself amount to a giant corporation. |
| Collective consciousness | Rule by a collective consciousness of all human minds connected via some form of technological telepathy acting as a form of supercomputer to make decisions based on shared patterned experiences to deliver fair and accurate decisions to problems as they arrive. Also known as the hive mind principle, it differs from voting in that each person would make a decision while in the hive—the synapses of all minds work together following a longer path of memories to make one decision. Seetechnological singularity. |
| Secret society | A secret society (cryptocracy, secret government,shadow government, or invisible government) is a club or organization whose activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed. As a form of government, secret societies are a theoretical government in which real and actual political power resides with private individuals who make decisions behind the scenes, while publicly elected representatives serve as puppets orscapegoats. Probably the most infamous secret society is theIlluminati, who had in their general statutes, "The order of the day is to put an end to the machinations of the purveyors of injustice, to control them without dominating them."[59] Secret societies are illegal in several countries, includingItaly andPoland, who ban secret political parties and political organizations in their constitutions. Secret societies are often portrayed infiction settings. Some examples from popular culture include:
|
| Theonomy | A hypotheticalChristian form of government in which society is ruled bydivine law.[60] Theonomists hold that divine law, particularly the judicial laws of theOld Testament, should be observed by modern societies.[61] The chief architects of the movement areGary North,Greg Bahnsen, andR.J. Rushdoony.[62] |
| Magocracy | Rule by a government with the highest authority composed entirely or primarily ofmagicians, sages, sorcerers, wizards, witches, or some other magic users. A magocracy consists of a ruling class that uses magic as a centerpiece of their political power. Magocracies can exist as a government of mages ruling over other mages, or as mages ruling over non-magical persons. Magocracies are portrayed primarily in fiction andfantasy settings. Some examples from popular culture include:
|
| Synthetic Technocracy | Rule byspecialist AI experts in a given domain. AI technocrats are assumed to have two major advantages over human technocrats: fairness and comprehensiveness. All forms of human government are seen as inherently flawed, due to the emotional nature of humankind. Synthetic technocracy bills itself as dispassionate and rational, free of the strife of political parties and factions as it pursues its optimal ends. Following in the tradition of other meritocracy theories, synthetic technocrats assume full state control over political and economic issues. Synthetic technocracy is portrayed primarily inscience fiction settings. Examples from popular culture include Gaia inAppleseed |
Lacking an English word [...], Lieber simply coined one, hamarchy, which he derived 'from ama, at the same time, jointly, cooperatingly, andarchein, to rule.'
{{cite journal}}:Missing or empty|title= (help)[...] the new underclass, the consumtariat (CONSUMer proleTARIAT) [...]
a system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god
[...] Weber's delineation specifies caesaropapism as the domination of religion by secular powers; hierocracy as the legitimating oversight of the political realm by religious functionaries; and theocracy as the fusion of political and religious authority (the priest who is also king).
While he was in Honduras, Porter coined the term 'banana republic'
/ˌkôrpərəˈtäkrəsē/ .... a society or system that is governed or controlled by corporations:
Marx distinguishes between two phases of marketless communism: an initial phase, with labor vouchers, and a higher phase, with free access.
Communism would mean free distribution of goods and services. The communist slogan, 'From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs' (as opposed to 'work') would then rule
Socialism, you see, is a bird with two wings. The definition is 'social ownership and democratic control of the instruments and means of production.'
Theonomy – A system of government characterized by being governed by divine law.
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