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Embarrassment orawkwardness is anemotional state that is associated with mild to severe levels of discomfort, and which is usually experienced when someone commits (or thinks of) a socially unacceptable or frowned-upon act that is witnessed by or revealed to others. Frequently grouped withshame andguilt, embarrassment is considered a "self-conscious emotion", and it can have a profoundly negative impact on a person's thoughts or behavior.[1]
Usually, some perception of loss ofhonor ordignity (or other high-value ideals) is involved, but the embarrassment level and the type depends on the situation.
Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps orshyness. Some causes of embarrassment stem from personal actions, such as being caught in a lie or in making a mistake. In many cultures, being seennude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment (seemodesty). Personal embarrassment can also stem from the actions of others who place the embarrassed person in a socially awkward situation—such as a parent showing one's baby pictures to friends, having someone make a derogatory comment about one's appearance or behavior, discovering one is the victim ofgossip, being rejected by another person (see alsohumiliation), being made the focus of attention (e.g.,birthday celebrants, newlyweds), or evenwitnessing someone else's embarrassment.
Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination ofblushing,sweating,nervousness,stammering, andfidgeting. Sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles ornervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is more common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings ofanger depending on the perceived seriousness of the situation, especially if the individual thinks another person is intentionally causing the embarrassment. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the embarrassing act as inconsequential or evenhumorous, to intense apprehension or fear.
The idea that embarrassment serves an apology or appeasement function originated with Goffman who argued the embarrassed individual "demonstrates that he/she is at least disturbed by the fact and may prove worthy at another time".[2] Semin and Manstead demonstrated social functions of embarrassment whereby the perpetrator of knocking over a sales display (the "bad act") was deemed more likable by others if he/she appeared embarrassed than if he/she appeared unconcerned – regardless of restitution behavior (rebuilding the display).[citation needed] The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture. It has been demonstrated that those who are not prone to embarrassment are more likely to engage in antisocial behavior – for example, adolescent boys who displayed more embarrassment were found less likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviors. Similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behavior was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys.[citation needed] Thus proneness to embarrassment (i.e., a concern for how one is evaluated by others) can act as a brake on behavior that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture.
Embarrassment can also beprofessional orofficial, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, or loss of human life. Examples of causes include a government's failed public policy, exposure of corrupt practices or unethical behavior,[3] a celebrity whose personal habits receive public scrutiny or face legal action, or officials caught in serious personally embarrassing situations. Even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved (e.g., seeSpace Shuttle Challenger).
Not all official failures result in official embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. For example, losing a close political election might cause some personal embarrassment for the candidate but generally would be considered an honorable loss in the profession and thus not necessarily lead to professional embarrassment. Similarly, a scientist might be personally disappointed and embarrassed if one of their hypotheses was proven wrong, but would not normally suffer professional embarrassment as a result. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a scientific claim would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by public expressions ofanger,denial of involvement, or attempts tominimize the consequences. Sometimes the embarrassed entity issues press statements, removes or distances themselves from sub-level employees, attempts to carry on as if nothing happened, suffers income loss, emigrates, or vanishes from public view.
Vicarious embarrassment is an embarrassed feeling from observing the embarrassing actions of another person.[4] People who rate themselves as more empathic are more likely to experience vicarious embarrassment.[5] The effect is present whether or not the observed party is aware of the embarrassing nature of their actions, although awareness generally increases the strength of the felt vicarious embarrassment, as does an accidental (as opposed to intentional) action.[6]
One typology of embarrassment is described by Sharkey and Stafford. There are six types of embarrassment:[7]
Another typology, by Cupach and Metts, discusses the dimensions of intended-unintended and appropriate-inappropriate behavior, and four basic types of embarrassing circumstances:
Based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations: the actor responsible and the observer responsible. Actor responsible situations are embarrassing when a person executes an act that is either inappropriate to a point of proficiency matching social norms and expectations, inconsistent with role expectations, or is out-of-sync with asocial identity. The observer responsible categories are embarrassing when an individual becomes the focus of attention through:
The first known written occurrence ofembarrass in English was in 1664 bySamuel Pepys in his diary. The word derives from the French wordembarrasser, "to block" or "obstruct",[8] whose first recorded usage was byMichel de Montaigne in 1580. The French word was derived from the Spanishembarazar, whose first recorded usage was in 1460 inCancionero de Stúñiga (Songbook of Stúñiga) byÁlvaro de Luna.[9] The Spanish word comes from thePortugueseembaraçar, which is a combination of theprefixem- (from Latinim- for "in-") withbaraço orbaraça, "a noose" or "rope".[10]Baraça originated before the Romans began their conquest of theIberian Peninsula in 218 BC.[9] Thus,baraça could be related to theCeltic wordbarr, "tuft". (Celtic people actually settled much of Spain and Portugal beginning in the 8th century BC)[11] However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution ofr forrr inIbero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence.
TheSpanish word may come from the Italianimbarazzare, fromimbarazzo, "obstacle" or "obstruction". That word came fromimbarrare, "to block" or "bar", which is a combination ofin-, "in" withbarra, "bar" (from theVulgar Latinbarra, which is of unknown origin).[9] The problem with this theory is that the first known usage of the word in Italian was byBernardo Davanzati (1529–1606), long after the word had entered Spanish.[12]
Embarrassing another person is considered to be a serious sin inJudaism. Rabbis quoted in theBabylonian Talmud state that embarrassing another person in public is akin to murder (literally "spilling blood"). Rabbi Naḥman bar Yitzḥak responds by noting how the analogy of "spilling blood" is apt since, when a person is embarrassed, their face becomes less flushed and more pale (after the initial flush).[13]
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