Elohim (Hebrew:אֱלֹהִים,romanized: ʾĔlōhīm:[(ʔ)eloˈ(h)im]), the plural ofאֱלוֹהַּ (ʾĔlōah), is a Hebrew word meaning "gods" or "godhood". Although the word is grammaticallyplural, in theHebrew Bible it most often takes singular verbal or pronominalagreement and refers to a singledeity, particularly but not always theGod of Israel. In other verses it takes plural agreement and refers to gods in the plural.
Morphologically, the word is the plural form of the wordאֱלוֹהַּ[a] (eloah) and related toel. It iscognate to the word'l-h-m which is found inUgaritic, where it is used as thepantheon forCanaanite gods, the children ofEl, and conventionally vocalized as "Elohim". Most uses of the termElohim in the later Hebrew text imply a view that is at leastmonolatrist at the time of writing, and such usage (in the singular), as a proper title for Deity, is distinct from generic usage aselohim, "gods" (plural, simple noun).
Rabbinic scholarMaimonides wrote thatElohim "Divinity" andelohim "gods" are commonly understood to behomonyms.[1] One modern theory suggests that the notion ofdivinity underwent radical changes in the early period ofIsraelite identity and development ofAncient Hebrew religion. In this view, the ambiguity of the termelohim is the result of such changes, cast in terms of "vertical translatability", i.e. the re-interpretation of the gods of the earliest recalled period as thenational god ofmonolatrism as it emerged in the 7th to 6th century BCE in theKingdom of Judah and during theBabylonian captivity, and further in terms ofmonotheism by the emergence ofRabbinical Judaism in the 2nd century CE.[2]Another theory, building on an idea by Gesenius, argues that even before Hebrew became a distinct language, the pluralelohim had both a plural meaning of "gods" and an abstract meaning of "godhood" or "divinity", much as the plural of "father",avot, can mean either "fathers" or "fatherhood".Elohim then came to be used so frequently in reference to specific deities, both male and female, domestic and foreign (for instance, the goddess of the Sidonians in 1 Kings 11:33), that it came to be concretized from meaning "divinity" to meaning "deity", though still occasionally used adjectivally as "divine".[3]
The wordelohim or 'elohiym (ʼĕlôhîym) is agrammatically pluralnoun for "gods" or "deities" or various other words inBiblical Hebrew.[4][5][6][7][8][9][10]
In Hebrew, the ending-im normally indicates a masculine plural. However, when referring to the Jewish God,Elohim is usually understood to be grammatically singular (i.e., it governs a singular verb or adjective).[11][12] InModern Hebrew, it is often referred to in the singular despite the-im ending that denotes plural masculine nouns in Hebrew.[13][14]
It is generally thought thatElohim is derived fromeloah,[4][5][6][7][8][9] the latter being an expanded form of theNorthwest Semitic noun 'il.[15][16] The related nounseloah (אלוה) andel (אֵל) are used as proper names or as generics, in which case they are interchangeable withelohim.[16] The term contains an addedheh asthird radical to thebiconsonantal root. Discussions of theetymology ofelohim essentially concern this expansion. An exact cognate outside of Hebrew is found in Ugariticʾlhm,[15] the family of El, thecreator god and chief deity of theCanaanite pantheon, inBiblical AramaicʼĔlāhā and laterSyriacAlaha ("God"), and in Arabicʾilāh ("god, deity") (orAllah as "The [single] God").[15] "El" (the basis for the extended rootʾlh) is usually derived from a root meaning "to be strong" and/or "to be in front".[16]
The wordel (singular) is a standard term for "god" in Aramaic, paleo-Hebrew, and other related Semitic languages including Ugaritic. The Canaanite pantheon of gods was known as'ilhm,[17] the Ugaritic equivalent toelohim.[18] For instance, the UgariticBaal Cycle mentions "seventy sons ofAsherah". Each "son of god" was held to be the originating deity for a particular people (KTU 2 1.4.VI.46).[19]
Elohim occurs frequently throughout the Torah. In some cases (e.g.,Exodus 3:4, "Elohim called unto him out of the midst of the bush ..."), it behaves like a singular noun in Hebrew grammar and is then generally understood to denote the single God of Israel. In other cases,elohim acts as an ordinary plural of the wordeloah and refers to thepolytheistic notion of multiple gods (for example,Exodus 20:3, "You shall have no other gods before me").
The wordElohim occurs more than 2500 times in the Hebrew Bible, with meanings ranging from "gods" in a general sense (as inExodus 12:12, where it describes "the gods of Egypt"), to specific gods (the frequent references toYahweh as the "elohim" of Israel), toseraphim, and other supernatural beings, to thespirits of the dead brought up at the behest ofKingSaul in1 Samuel 28:13, and even to kings and prophets (e.g.,Exodus 4:16).[16] The phrasebene elohim, translated "sons of the Gods", has an exact parallel inUgaritic andPhoenician texts, referring to the council of the gods.[16]
Elohim occupy the seventh rank of ten in the medieval rabbinic scholarMaimonides'Jewish angelic hierarchy. Maimonides wrote: "I must premise that every Hebrew [now] knows that the term Elohim is a homonym, and denotes God, angels, judges, and the rulers of countries ..."[1]
In the Hebrew Bible,1 Samuel 28:13,elohim is used with a plural verb. Thewitch of Endor tellsSaul that she sawelohim ascending (olimעֹלִים, plural verb) out of the earth when she summoned the spirit of theProphetSamuel at Saul's request.[20] The wordelohim, in this context, can refer to spirits as well as deities.[21] Some traditional Jewish sources say that the spirits of deceased human beings are being referred to[citation needed]. TheBabylonian Talmud states: "olim indicates that there were two of them. One of them was Samuel, but the other, who was he? – Samuel went and broughtMoses with him."[22]Rashi gives this interpretation in his commentary on the verse.[23] Regarding this,Sforno states that "every disembodied creature is known as elohim; this includes the soul of human beings known as [the] 'Image of God'."[24]
InGenesis 20:13,Abraham, before the polytheisticPhilistine kingAbimelech, says that "Elohim (translated as 'God') caused (התעו, plural verb) me to wander".[25][26][27] Whereas the GreekSeptuagint (LXX) has a singular verb form (ἐξήγαγε(ν), aorist II), most English versions usually translate this as "God caused" (which does not distinguish between a singular and plural verb).[28] Regarding this, theJerusalem Talmud states: "All Names written regarding our father Abraham are holy [i.e., referring to the one God] except one which is profane,it was when the gods made me err from my father's house. But some say this one also is holy, [i.e.,] 'were it not for God, they [humans] already would have made me err'."[29] The same disagreement appears inTractate Soferim, whereHaninah ben Ahi R. Joshua maintained that the word is "holy".[30] An alternative view (held byOnkelos,Bahya ben Asher,Jacob ben Asher,Sforno, and RabbiYaakov Tzvi Mecklenburg) is that the word means "gods" and the verse means that Abraham's distaste for theidolatry of his fatherTerah led him to decide to wander far from home.[31] Others, such asChizkuni, interpretelohim as a reference to wicked rulers likeAmraphel (often equated withNimrod).[32]
InGenesis 35:7, Jacob builds an altar atEl-Bethel "because thereelohim revealed himself [plural verb] to [Jacob]". The verbniglu ("revealed himself") is plural, even though one would expect the singular.[33] This is one of several instances where the Bible uses plural verbs with the nameelohim.[34][35] Some Jewish sources (e.g.,Targum Jonathan,Ibn Ezra, addChizkuni), seeking to explain the plural language of Genesis 35:7, translateelohim here as "angels",[36] noting that in the story being referenced Jacob experiences a vision ofmalakhei elohim (angels of God) ascending and descending the ladder.[37]Radak agrees that this is a reference to angels but also presents the alternative view that the plural form in the verse is amajestic plural, as seen in other verses such asPsalms 149:2 andJob 35:10.[38]Elohim can be seen used in reference to theangels in a variety of other cases, such as inPsalms 8:6 and82:1–6.[39][40][41]
Elohim, when meaning the God of Israel, is mostly grammatically singular, and is commonly translated as "God", and capitalised. For example, inGenesis 1:26, it is written: "Then Elohim (translated as God) said (singular verb), 'Let us (plural) make (plural verb) man in our (plural) image, after our (plural) likeness'". In the traditional Jewish understanding of the verse, the plural refers toGod takingcouncil with Hisangels (who He had created by this point) before creatingAdam.[42] It should also be noted that in the following verse of Genesis 1:27: "So God created man in his [own] image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them"; the singular verb בָּרָא (bārāʾ), meaning "He created" is used as it is elsewhere in all the acts of creation featured in Genesis. This shows us that the actual creation of man (and everything else) in Genesis was a singular act by God alone.[43][44][45]
Wilhelm Gesenius and other Hebrew grammarians traditionally described this as thepluralis excellentiae (plural of excellence), which is similar to thepluralis majestatis (plural of majesty, or "Royal we").[46][b]Gesenius comments that the singular Hebrew termElohim is to be distinguished fromelohim used to refer to plural gods, and remarks that:
The supposition thatאֱלֹהִים (elohim) is to be regarded as merely a remnant of earlier polytheistic views (i.e. as originally only a numerical plural) is at least highly improbable, and, moreover, would not explain the analogous plurals (see below). That the language has entirely rejected the idea of numerical plurality inאֱלֹהִים (whenever it denotesone God), is proved especially by its being almost invariably joined with a singular attribute (cf. §132h), e.g.אֱלֹהִים צַדִּיקPsalms 7:10, &c. Henceאֱלֹהִים may have been used originally not only as a numerical but also as an abstract plural (corresponding to the Latinnumen, and ourGodhead), and, like other abstracts of the same kind, have been transferred to a concrete single god (even of the heathen).
To the same class (and probably formed on the analogy ofאֱלֹהִים) belong the pluralsקְדשִׁים (kadoshim), meaningthe Most Holy (only of Yahweh,Hosea 12:1,Proverbs 9:10,30:3 – cf.אֱלֹהִים קְדשִׁיםelohiym kadoshim inJoshua 24:19 and the singular Aramaicעֶלְיוֹנִיןthe Most High,Daniel 7:18,7:22,7:25); and probablyתְּרָפִים (teraphim) (usually taken in the sense ofpenates), the image of a god, used especially for obtaining oracles. Certainly in1 Samuel 19:13,19:16 onlyone image is intended; in most other places a single imagemay be intended; inZechariah 10:2 alone is it most naturally taken as a numerical plural.
— Gesenius, Wilhelm (1910)."124. The Various Uses of the Plural-form" . InKautzsch, Emil (ed.).Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar. Translated byCowley, Arthur Ernest (2nd, revised and enlarged ed.).Oxford University Press. p. 399 – viaWikisource.
There are a number of notable exceptions to the rule thatElohim is treated as singular when referring to the God of Israel, includingGenesis 20:13,Genesis 35:7,2 Samuel 7:23 andPsalms 58:11, and notably the epithet of the "Living God" (Deuteronomy 5:26 etc.), which is constructed with the plural adjective,Elohim ḥayyim (אלהים חיים) but still takes singular verbs. The treatment ofElohim as both singular and plural is, according to Mark Sameth, consistent with a theory put forth byGuillaume Postel (16th century) andMichelangelo Lanci [it] (19th century) that the God of Israel was understood by the ancient priests to be a singular, dual-gendered deity.[48][49][50][51]
In the Septuagint andNew Testament translations,Elohim has the singularὁ θεός even in these cases, and modern translations follow suit in giving "God" in the singular. TheSamaritan Torah has edited out some of these exceptions.[52]
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In a few cases in the Greek Septuagint (LXX), Hebrewelohim with a plural verb, or with implied plural context, was rendered eitherangeloi ("angels") orto kriterion tou Theou ("the judgement of God").[53] These passages then entered first the LatinVulgate, then the EnglishKing James Version (KJV) as "angels" and "judges", respectively. From this came the result thatJames Strong, for example, listed "angels" and "judges" as possible meanings forelohim with a plural verb in hisStrong's Concordance,[4][5] and the same is true of many other 17th–20th century reference works. Both Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon and theBrown–Driver–Briggs Lexicon[5] list both "angels" and "judges" as possible alternative meanings ofelohim with plural verbs and adjectives.
Gesenius andErnst Wilhelm Hengstenberg have questioned the reliability of theSeptuagint translation in this matter. Gesenius lists the meaning without agreeing with it.[54] Hengstenberg stated that the Hebrew Bible text never useselohim to refer to "angels", but that the Septuagint translators refused the references to "gods" in the verses they amended to "angels".[55]
The Greek New Testament (NT) quotesPsalms 8:4–6 in Hebrews 2:6b-8a, where the Greek NT hasἀγγέλους (angelous) in vs. 7,[56] quotingPsalms 8:5 (8:6 in the LXX), which also hasἀγγέλους in a version of the Greek Septuagint.[57] In the KJV,elohim (Strong's number H430) is translated as "angels" only in Psalm 8:5.[58]
The KJV translateselohim as "judges" inExodus 21:6;Exodus 22:8; twice inExodus 22:9[59] as "judge" in1 Samuel 2:25, and as "gods" inExodus 22:28,Psalm 82:1,Psalm 82:6,Psalm 95:3,Psalm 96:4,Psalm 97:9, andPsalm 138:1.
Angels cited in theHebrew Bible and external literature often contain the related nounʾĒl (אֵל) in theirtheophoric names such asMichael andGabriel.
TheHebrew language has several nouns with-im (masculine plural) and-oth (feminine plural) endings which nevertheless take singular verbs, adjectives and pronouns. For example,Baalim,[60]Adonim,[61]Behemoth.[62] This form is known as the "honorific plural", in which the pluralization is a sign of power or honor.[63][full citation needed] A very common singular Hebrew word with plural ending is the wordachoth, meaning sister, with the irregular plural form achioth.[64]
Alternatively, there are several other frequently used words in the Hebrew language that contain a masculine plural ending but also maintain this form in singular concept. The major examples are: Sky/Heavens (שמיםshamayim), Face (פניםpanim), Life (חיים -chayyim), Water (מיםmayim). Of these four nouns, three appear in the first sentence of Genesis[65] (along withelohim). Three of them also appear in the first sentence of the Eden creation story[66] (also along withelohim). Instead of "honorific plural" these other plural nouns terms represent something which is constantly changing. Water, sky, face, life are "things which are never bound to one form".[67]
God standeth in the congregation of the mighty; he judgeth among the gods. ...
I have said, Ye [are] gods; and all of you [are] children of the most High.
But ye shall die like men, and fall like one of the princes.
— Psalm 82:1, 6–7 (AV)
Marti Steussy, inChalice Introduction to the Old Testament, discusses: "The first verse of Psalm 82: 'Elohim has taken his place in the divine council.' Here elohim has a singular verb and clearly refers to God. But in verse 6 of the Psalm, God says to the other members of the council, 'You [plural] are elohim.' Hereelohim has to mean gods."[68]
Mark Smith, referring to this same Psalm, states inGod in Translation: "This psalm presents a scene of the gods meeting together in divine council ... Elohim stands in the council of El. Among the elohim he pronounces judgment: ..."[69]
InHulsean Lectures for..., H. M. Stephenson discussed Jesus' argument inJohn 10:34-36 9 concerningPsalm 82:6-7. (In answer to the charge of blasphemy Jesus replied:) "Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods. If he called them gods, unto whom the word of God came, and the scripture cannot be broken; Say ye of him, whom the Father hath sanctified, and sent into the world, Thou blasphemest; because I said, I am the Son of God?" – "Now what is the force of this quotation 'I said ye are gods.' It is from the Asaph Psalm which begins 'Elohim hath taken His place in the mighty assembly. In the midst of the Elohim He is judging.'"[70]
The Hebrew word for "son" isben; plural isbānim (with theconstruct state form being "benei"). The Hebrew termbenei elohim ("sons of God" or "sons of the gods") inGenesis 6:2[71] compares to the use of "sons of gods" (Ugaritic:b'n il) sons ofEl inUgaritic mythology.[72]Karel van der Toorn states that gods can be referred to collectively asbene elim,bene elyon, orbene elohim.[16]
The Hebrew Bible uses various names for the God of Israel.[75]: 102 According to thedocumentary hypothesis, these variations are the products of differentsource texts and narratives that constitute thecomposition of the Torah:Elohim is the name of God used in theElohist (E) andPriestly (P) sources, whileYahweh is the name of God used in theJahwist (J) source.[73][74][75][76][77]Form criticism postulates the differences of names may be the result of geographical origins; the P and E sources coming from the North and J from the South.[75]: 102 [76] There may be a theological point, that God did not reveal his name,Yahweh, before the time ofMoses, thoughHans Heinrich Schmid showed that the Jahwist was aware of the prophetic books from the 7th and 8th centuries BCE.[78]
The Jahwist source presents Yahwehanthropomorphically: for example, walking through theGarden of Eden looking for Adam and Eve. The Elohist source often presents Elohim as more distant and frequently involvesangels, as in the Elohist version of the tale ofJacob's Ladder, in which there is a ladder to the clouds, with angels climbing up and down, with Elohim at the top. In the Jahwist version of the tale, Yahweh is simply stationed in the sky, above the clouds without the ladder or angels. Likewise, the Elohist source describesJacob wrestling with an angel.
The classical documentary hypothesis, first developed in the late 19th century amongbiblical scholars andtextual critics, holds that the Jahwist portions of theTorah were composed in the 10th-9th century BCE[75]: 102 and the Elohist portions in the 9th-8th century BCE,[75]: 102 [76] i.e. during the early period of theKingdom of Judah. This, however, is not universally accepted aslater literary scholarship seems to show evidence of a later "Elohist redaction" (post-exilic) during the 5th century BCE which sometimes makes it difficult to determine whether a given passage is "Elohist" in origin, or the result of a later editor.[citation needed]
In theLatter Day Saint movement andMormonism,Elohim refers toGod the Father.[79][80] Elohim is the father of Jesus in both the physical and the spiritual realms, whose name before birth is said to beJehovah.[79][80][81]
In the belief system held by the Christian churches that adhere to the Latter Day Saint movement and mostMormon denominations, includingthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the termGod refers to Elohim (the Eternal Father),[79][80] whereasGodhead means a council of three distinct gods: Elohim (God the Father),Jehovah (the Son of God, Jesus Christ),[79][80] and theHoly Ghost, in anon-trinitarian conception of the Godhead.[79][80] In Mormonism, the three persons are considered to be physically separate beings, or personages, but united in will and purpose; this conception differs significantly frommainline Christiantrinitarianism.[79][80][82] As such, the termGodhead differs from how it is used in mainstream Christianity.[79][80] This description of God represents theorthodoxy of the LDS Church, established early in the 19th century.[79]
TheBook of Abraham, asacred text accepted by some branches of the Latter Day Saint movement, contains a paraphrase of the first chapter of Genesis which explicitly translatesElohim as "the Gods" multiple times; this is suggested by MormonapostleJames E. Talmage to indicate a "plurality of excellence or intensity, rather than distinctively of number,"[83] in contrast to his contemporary apostleOrson F. Whitney's explanation that, while to "the modern Jew [Elohim] means the plural of majesty, not of number...to the Latter-day Saint it signifies both."[84]
Thenew religious movement andUFO religionInternational Raëlian Movement, founded by the French journalistClaude Vorilhon (who later became known as "Raël") in 1974,[85] claims that the Hebrew wordElohim from the Book of Genesis actually means “those who came from the sky” and refers to a species ofextraterrestrial aliens.[86]
In theGnostic text known as theSecret Book of John, Elohim is another name forAbel, whose parents areEve andYaldabaoth. He rules over the elements of water and earth, alongsideCain, who is seen asYahweh ruling over the elements of fire and wind.[87] However, the 2nd century Gnostic teacherJustin proposed a cosmological model with three original divinities. The first is a transcendental being called the Good, the second is Elohim, appearing here as an intermediate male figure, and the third is anEarth-mother calledEden. The world along with the first humans are created from the love between Elohim and Eden, but when Elohim learns about the existence of the Good above him and ascends trying to reach it, he causes evil to enter the universe.[88]
אֱלֹהִיםʼĕlôhîym, el-o-heem; plural of H433 (אֱלוֹהַּ ĕlôah); gods in the ordinary sense; but specifically used (in the plural thus, especially with the article) of the supreme God; occasionally applied by way of deference to magistrates; and sometimes as a superlative:—angels, X exceeding, God (gods) (-dess, -ly), X (very) great, judges, X mighty.
Elohim, singularEloah, (Hebrew: God), the God of Israel in the Old Testament. The term Elohim—though sometimes used for other deities, such as theMoabite godChemosh, theSidonian goddessAstarte, and also for other majestic beings such as angels, kings, judges (the Old Testamentshofeṭim), and theMessiah—is usually employed in the Old Testament for the one and only God of Israel, whose personal name was revealed toMoses asYHWH, orYahweh (q.v.). When referring to Yahweh,elohim very often is accompanied by the articleha-, to mean, in combination, "the God," and sometimes with a further identificationElohim ḥayyim, meaning "the living God."
Though Elohim is plural in form, it is understood in the singular sense. Thus, inGenesis the words, "In the beginning God (Elohim) created the heavens and the earth," Elohim is monotheistic in connotation, though its grammatical structure seems polytheistic. The Israelites probably borrowed the Canaanite plural noun Elohim and made it singular in meaning in their cultic practices and theological reflections.
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