Ecofeminism integratesfeminism andpolitical ecology. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the concept ofgender to analyze relationships between humans and the natural world.[1] The term was coined by the French writerFrançoise d'Eaubonne in her 1974 bookLe Féminisme ou la Mort.[2][3][4] Ecofeminist theory introduces a feminist perspective toGreen politics and calls for an egalitarian, collaborative society in which there is no one dominant group.[5] Today, there are several branches of ecofeminism, with varying approaches and analyses, including liberal ecofeminism, spiritual/cultural ecofeminism, and social/socialist ecofeminism (ormaterialist ecofeminism).[5] Interpretations of ecofeminism and how it might be applied to social thought includeecofeminist art,social justice andpolitical philosophy, religion, economics, contemporary feminism, and literature.
Ecofeminist analyses address the political effects ofculturally constructed parallels between the oppression of nature and the oppression of women. These parallels include, but are not limited to, seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and women as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate nature. Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected.[6]
Professors of sociology, Maria Mies, Ariel Salleh and Susan Mann all associate the beginning of ecofeminism not with feminists but with women of many historically different backgrounds who have perceived connections between gender, race, class, and environmental issues. The ideal ofintersectionality is upheld through the notion that in activist and theory circles marginalized groups must be included in the discussion. However, in early North American environmentalism, the issues of race and class were sometimes separated.[7]
EcofeministKaren Warren lists Aldo Leopold's essay "Land Ethic" (1949) as fundamental to her own ecofeminist philosophy, as Leopold was the first to pen an ethic for the land which understands all non-human parts of that community (animals, plants, land, air, water) as equal to and in a relationship with humans. That inclusive understanding of the environment helped launch the modernpreservation movement showing how environmental issues can be viewed through a framework of caring.[11]
InIndia, in the state ofUttarakhand in 1973, women took part in theChipko movement to protect forests fromdeforestation. Many men during this time were moving to cities in search of work, and women that stayed in the rural parts of India were reliant on the forests for subsistence.[12] As documented byVandana Shiva,Non-violent protest tactics were used to occupy trees so thatloggers could not cut them down.[11]
InKenya in 1977, theGreen Belt Movement was initiated by environmental and political activist ProfessorWangari Maathai. It is a ruraltree planting program led by women, which Maathai designed to help preventdesertification in the area. The program created a 'green belt' of at least 1,000 trees around villages, and gave participants the ability to take charge in their communities. In later years, the Green Belt Movement was an advocate for informing and empowering citizens through seminars for civic and environmental education, as well as holding national leaders accountable for their actions and instilling agency in citizens.[13] The work of the Green Belt Movement continues today.
In 1978 inNew York, mother and environmentalistLois Gibbs led her community in protest after discovering that their entire neighborhood,Love Canal, was built on top of a toxicdump site. The toxins in the ground were causing illness among children and reproductive issues among women, as well asbirth defects in babies born to pregnant women exposed to the toxins. The Love Canal movement eventually led to the evacuation and relocation of nearly 800 families by thefederal government.[14]
In 1980 and 1981, women like ecofeministYnestra King organized a peaceful protest at thePentagon. Women stood, hand in hand, demanding equal rights (including social, economic, andreproductive rights) as well as an end to militaristic actions taken by the government and exploitation of the community (people and the environment). This movement is known as the Women's Pentagon Actions.[15]
In 1985, theAkwesasne Mother's Milk Project was launched byKatsi Cook. This study was funded by the government, and investigated how the higher level of contaminants in water near theMohawkreservation impacted babies. It revealed that throughbreast milk, Mohawk children were being exposed to 200% more toxins than children not on the reservation. Toxins contaminate water all over the world, but due toenvironmental racism, certain marginalized groups are exposed to a much higher amount.[16]
The Greening of Harlem Coalition is another example of an ecofeminist movement. In 1989,Bernadette Cozart founded the coalition, which is responsible for many urban gardens aroundHarlem. Cozart's goal is to turn vacant lots intocommunity gardens.[17] This is economically beneficial, and also provides a way for very urban communities to be in touch with nature and each other. The majority of people interested in this project (as noted in 1990) were women. Through these gardens, they were able to participate in and become leaders of their communities.Urban greening exists in other places as well. Beginning in 1994, a group ofAfrican-American women inDetroit have developed city gardens, and call themselves the Gardening Angels. Similar garden movements have occurred globally.[18]
The development ofvegetarian ecofeminism can be traced to the mid-80s and 90s, where it first appeared in writing. However, the roots of avegetarian ecofeminist view can be traced back further by looking at sympathy for non-humans andcounterculture movements of the 1960s and 1970s.[19] At the culmination of the decade, ecofeminism had spread to both USA coasts and articulated anintersectional analysis of women and the environment. Eventually, challenging ideas of environmentalclassism and racism, resisting toxic dumping and other threats to the impoverished.[20]
Vegetarian ecofeminists assert that "omitting theoppression of animals from feminist and ecofeminist analyses … is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both feminism (as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism."[19] Here, "the personal is political", as many ecofeminists believe that "meat-eating is a form of patriarchal violence."[19] During a 1995 interview withOn the Issues, Carol Adams stated, "Manhood is constructed in our culture in part by access to meat-eating and control of other bodies, whether it's women or animals".[21] According to Adams, "We cannot work for justice and challenge the oppression of nature without understanding that the most frequent way we interact with nature is by eating animals".[21] Vegetarian ecofeminism is a clearly committed system of ethics and action.[19] Laura Wright would propose Vegan Studies as an academic discipline.
In terms of the international movement,Ariel Salleh's bookEcofeminism as Politics (last reprinted in 2017) contains a detailed account of women's ecofeminist actions fromJapan and thePacific toScandinavia.[22][23]
Though the scope of ecofeminist analysis is dynamic and diverse ecofeminist perspectives have emerged from women activists and thinkers all over the world, academic studies of ecofeminism have been dominated by North American universities. Thus,Charlene Spretnak described ecofeminist work developing: 1) through the study of political theory as well as history; 2) through belief and study ofnature-based religions; and 3) throughenvironmentalism.[24] In a 1993 essay entitled "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health", authorsGreta Gaard andLori Gruen defined what they call the "ecofeminist framework". The essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to outlining the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. The framework was intended to establish ways of viewing and understanding the current global crisis so as to better understand how we arrived at this point and what may be done to ameliorate it.
Building on the work ofRosemary Ruether andCarolyn Merchant, Gaard and Gruen argued that there are four forces behind this political framework:
The rise ofpatriarchal religions and their establishment of gender hierarchies along with their denial ofimmanent divinity.
Themechanistic materialist model of the universe that resulted from thescientific revolution and the subsequent reduction of all things into mere resources to be optimized, dead inert matter to be used.
Traditionalcultural dualisms based on masculinity v femininity, self v other, humanity v nature, and the inherent power and domination ethic these entail.
Capitalism and its intrinsic need for the instrumental exploitation of animals, earth and people for the sole purpose of creatingwealth.
These four factors have brought Western cultures to what ecofeminists see as a "separation between nature and culture" that is the root source of our planetary ills.[25]
Some ecofeminist approaches developed out ofanarcha-feminist concerns to abolish all forms of domination, including the oppressive character of humanity's relationship to the natural world.[26] According to d'Eaubonne's bookLe Féminisme ou la Mort, ecofeminism relates theoppression of all marginalized groups (women, people of color, children, the poor) to the oppression and domination of nature (animals, land, water, air, etc.). She argued that domination, exploitation, andcolonization under Westernpatriarchal society has directly caused irreversible environmental damage. An activist and organizer, d'Eaubonne worked for the eradication of all social injustice, not just injustice againstwomen and the environment.[11]
Influential early texts included:Women and Nature (Susan Griffin 1978),The Death of Nature (Carolyn Merchant 1980) andGyn/Ecology (Mary Daly 1978), which helped propel the association between domination by men of women and the domination of culture over nature. Meanwhile feminist activism of the 1980s included grass-roots movements such as the National Toxics Campaign,Mothers of East Los Angeles (MELA), and Native Americans for a Clean Environment (NACE) led by women devoted to issues of human health and environmental justice.[27] Writing from this circle discussed ecofeminism drawing fromGreen Party politics,peace movements, anddirect action movements.[15] A key figure at this time wasPetra Kelly, a founder of theGerman Green Party.
A reoccurring claim within ecofeminist literature is thatmasculinist structures justify their dominance through binary oppositions, these include but are not limited to:heaven/earth, mind/body,male/female, human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature,white/non-white, and abled/disabled. Oppression is reinforced by applying thesebinaries in social judgements of value/non-value.[28] Ecofeminist theory asserts thatcapitalism is built onpaternalist and masculinist values, such that the effects of capitalism can not benefit women.[29]
Ecofeminist scholars emphasized that it is notbecause women are female or "feminine" that they are sensitive to nature, but because they experience oppression by the same masculinist forces. Thismarginalization is evident in the standardgendered language used to describe nature, such as "Mother Earth" or "Mother Nature", and the animalized language used to describe women in derogatory terms.[30] By contrast, other ecofeminists prefer to emphasise the value of women's skills learned from the traditional social role as 'caregiver'.[31]
The Indian ecofeminist and activist Vandana Shiva wrote that women farmers have a special connection to the environment through daily experience and that this has been underestimated. According to Shiva's bookStaying Alive (1989), women insubsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by thereductionist capitalist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth (23)".[22] Shiva attributes this failure to the global domination of Western perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva,patriarchy has left women, nature, and many other groups outside of the economy, labelling them "unproductive".[32] Similarly, Ariel Salleh deepens this materialist ecofeminist approach in a critical dialogue with green politics andecosocialism.[23]
In the bookEcofeminism (1993), Vandana Shiva andMaria Mies interrogatemodern science and its acceptance as a universal and value-free system. They view the dominant stream of science not as objective but rather as a projection of Western patriarchalinstrumentalism.[33] The determination of what is considered scientific knowledge and its usage has been largely restricted to men. Examples include the medicalization ofchildbirth and the industrialization ofplant reproduction.
The key activist-scholars developing a materialist ecofeminism are Maria Mies andVeronika Bennholdt-Thomsen in Germany; Vandana Shiva in India; Ariel Salleh in Australia;Mary Mellor in the UK; and Ana Isla inPeru. Materialist ecofeminism is not widely known in North America aside from the journal collective atCapitalism Nature Socialism. Amaterialist analysis studies economic institutions such as labor, power, and property as a critical mechanism for control over women and nature. The contrast is betweenproduction, which is valued, versusreproduction of living relations, which is not.[34] This ecofeminism is referred to variously as "social feminism", "socialist ecofeminism", or "Marxist ecofeminism". According to Carolyn Merchant, "Social ecofeminism advocates the liberation of women through overturning economic and social hierarchies that turn all aspects of life into a market society that today even invades the womb".[5] Ecofeminism in this sense seeks to eliminate socialhierarchies which favor the production ofcommodities forprofit over biological and social reproduction traditionally seen as the sphere of women's work.
Spiritual ecofeminism is an approach popular among North American authors such asStarhawk,Riane Eisler,Carol Christ andCarol Adams. Starhawk calls for anearth-based spirituality, which recognizes that the Earth isalive, and that we are all interconnected.[35] Spiritual ecofeminism is not linked to any specific religion, but is centered around values of caring,compassion, andnon-violence.[36] Often, ecofeminists refer to ancient traditions, such as the worship ofGaia, the Goddess of nature and spirituality (also known as Mother Earth).[36]Wicca andPaganism are particularly influential in spiritual ecofeminism. Wicca, in particularDianic Wicca, traditionally demonstrates a deep respect for nature, a feminine outlook, and an aim to establish strong community values.[37]
In her bookRadical Ecology, Carolyn Merchant refers to spiritual ecofeminism as "cultural ecofeminism". According to Merchant, cultural ecofeminism, "celebrates the relationship between women and nature through the revival of ancient rituals centered on goddess worship, the moon, animals, and thefemale reproductive system."[5] Cultural ecofeminist practice intuition and an ethic of care in human-nature interrelationships.[5]
In the 1980s and 1990s, critics challenged the political radicalism of ecofeminism by claiming it was 'essentialist'. Ecofeminists were seen to be reinforcing patriarchal norms of domination by emphasising links between women and nature.Poststructuralist and someThird wave feminists in particular, saw essentialism as grouping all women under one inferior category, so enforcing the very societal norms that feminism tries to break from. For the problem is that traditionally, just as 'feminine' qualities are seen as less worthy, nature and the animal world is also judged of 'lesser value' than what masculinist patriarchal cultures define as 'humanity proper'.
Meanwhile, ecofeminists were opposingliberal or 'equality' feminisms on the basis that mainstream political institutions are unconsciously masculinist - both sex/gender exclusionary and destructive of the environment. In an interview, ecofeministNoel Sturgeon pointed out that what the anti-essentialists failed to recognise is a political strategy used to mobilize large and diverse groups of women, theorists and activists alike.[38] Additionally,Charlene Spretnak characterized ecofeminism as concerned with a wide agenda, includingreproductive technology, equal pay and equal rights, toxic pollution,Third Worlddevelopment, and more.[24]
Norie Ross Singer emphasized that ecofeminism should be understood as advancing multiple axes of identity such as gender, race, and class as inter-meshed in human-nonhuman relationships.[39] A. E. Kings identified this analysis as fundamentally 'intersectional'.[40] Vegetarian ecofeminists have contributed to intersectional analysis as well, by joining a political focus onanimal rights with activism for all oppressed life forms, including laboring men.
While the theologianRosemary Radford Ruether rejectedmysticism, she argued that spirituality and activism can combine effectively in ecofeminism.[41] On the other hand,social ecologistJanet Biehl criticized ecofeminism for what she saw as amystical reading of women and nature with not enough attention to the actual conditions of women’s lives. Biehl judged ecofeminism an anti-progressive movement for women.[42] In the 21st century, some ecofeminists aware of these criticisms began renaming their work under other labels - like 'queer ecologies', 'global feministenvironmental justice', or 'gender and the environment'.
Today the majority of ecofeminist thinkers and activists recognize both culturally constructed and embodied sex/gender differences. Moreover, socialist ecofeminists have always situated gender roles in a political economic framework, arguing for a radical materialist politics.[43] Socialist feminists show clearly that women’s supposed intrinsic connection with nature is a socially constructed ideology. As Ariel Salleh has pointed out, the anxiety over essentialism was mostly found among North American liberal and postmodern feminist academics. In Europe and the global South, the interplay of class, race, gender and species dominations and exploitations is grounded in a materialist analysis of socio-economic relations.[44]
Environmental justice andfeminist care ethics have pushed for participation of all marginalized groups, working againstracism,ageism,ableism. Andrew Charles points out thatpeople with disabilities still face issues of access and representation in policy making.[45] He suggests that the nurturing aspect of ecofeminism might be patronizing to marginalized groups. Likewise, a radicalwhite savior complex could disrupt the self-advocacy of racially marginalized peoples around the world.[46]
Catia Faria argues against the ecofeminist view that the main harm to non-human animals in the wild comes from patriarchal culture. It follows, she argues, that it is mistaken to argue that theconservation of nature is the best solution here. Instead, she contends, natural processes themselves are a source of immensesuffering for wild animals and that we should work towards alleviating the harms they experience, as well as eliminating patriarchal sources of harm, such ashunting.[47]
Judi Bari – Bari was a principal organizer of theEarth First! movement and experienced sexist hostility.
Françoise d'Eaubonne – Called upon women to lead an ecological revolution in order to save the planet. This entailed revolutionizing gender relations and human relations with the natural world.[3]
Greta Gaard – Gaard is an American ecofeminist scholar and activist. Her major contributions to the field connect ideas ofqueer theory, vegetarianism, and animal liberation. Her major theories includeecocriticism which works to includeliterary criticism and composition to inform ecofeminism and other feminist theories to address a wider range of social issues within ecofeminism. She is an ecological activist and leader in theU.S. Green Party, and the Green Movement.[48]
Ana Isla – Sociologist from Peru, member of Capitalism Nature Socialism ecofeminist editorial collective.[49]
Sallie McFague – A prominent ecofeministtheologian, McFague uses the metaphor of God's body to represent the universe at large. This metaphor values inclusive,mutualistic andinterdependent relations amongst all things.[50]
Carolyn Merchant – Historian of science who taught atUniversity of California, Berkeley for many years. Her bookThe Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution is a classic ecofeminist text.
Mary Mellor – UK sociologist who moved to ecofeminist ideas from an interest incooperatives. Her booksBreaking the Boundaries and her later bookFeminism and Ecology are grounded in a materialist analysis.[51][52]
Maria Mies – Mies is a Germansocial critic who has been involved in feminist work throughoutEurope andIndia. She works particularly on the intersections of patriarchy,poverty, and the environment on a local and global scale.[41]
Adrian Parr – A cultural and environmental theorist. She has published eight books and numerous articles onenvironmental activism,feminist new materialism, and imagination. Most notable is her trilogyHijacking Sustainability.[53] See also:The Wrath of Capital, andBirth of a New Earth.
Val Plumwood – Val Plumwood, formerly Val Routley, was an Australian ecofeminist intellectual and activist, who was prominent in the development of radicalecosophy from the early 1970s through the remainder of the 20th century. In her workFeminism and the Mastery of Nature she describes the relationship of mankind and the environment relating to an eco-feminist ideology.[54]
Alicia Puleo – The author of several books and articles on ecofeminism and gender inequality, Alicia Puleo has been characterized as "arguably Spain's most prominent explicator-philosopher of the worldwide movement or theoretical orientation known as ecofeminism."[55]
Rosemary Radford Ruether – Has written 36 books and over 600 articles exploring the intersections of feminism, theology, andcreation care.[56] Ruether was the first person to connect the domination of the earth with the oppression of women.[57][page needed]
Charlene Spretnak – Spretnak is an American writer largely known for her writing on ecology, politics and spirituality. Through these writings Spretnak has become a prominent ecofeminist. She has written many books which discuss ecological issues in terms of effects with social criticisms, including feminism. Spretnak's works had a major influence in the development of theGreen Party. She has also won awards based on her visions on ecology and social issues as well as feminist thinking.[60]
Starhawk – An American writer and activist, Starhawk is known for her work in spiritualism and ecofeminism. She advocates forsocial justice in issues surrounding nature and spirit. These social justice issues fall under the scope of feminism and ecofeminism. She believes in fighting oppression through intersectionality and the importance of spirituality, eco consciousness andsexual and gender liberation.[61][circular reference]
Douglas Vakoch – An American ecocritic whose edited volumes includeEcofeminism and Rhetoric: Critical Perspectives on Sex, Technology, and Discourse (2011),[66]Feminist Ecocriticism: Environment, Women, and Literature (2012),[67]Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction (2021),[68]Ecofeminist Science Fiction: International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature (2021),[69]The Routledge Handbook of Ecofeminism and Literature (2023),[70] (with Nicole Anae)Indian Feminist Ecocriticism (2022),[71] and (with Sam Mickey)Ecofeminism in Dialogue (2018),[72]Literature and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices (2018),[73] andWomen and Nature?: Beyond Dualism in Gender, Body, and Environment (2018).[74]
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