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Theearly history of Cambodia follows theprehistoric andprotohistoric development ofCambodia as a country in mainlandSoutheast Asia. Thanks to archaeological work carried out since 2009, this can now be traced back to theNeolithic period. As excavation sites have become more numerous and modern dating methods are applied, settlement traces of all stages of human civil development fromneolithichunter-gatherer groups to organized preliterate societies are documented in the region.[1][2][3][4]
Historical records of a political structure on territory that is now modern-day Cambodia first appear in Chinese annals in reference toFunan, a polity that encompassed the southernmost part of theIndochinese peninsula during the 1st to 6th centuries. Centered at the lower Mekong,[5] Funan is noted as the oldest regionalHindu culture, which suggests prolonged socio-economic interaction with maritime trading partners of theIndosphere in the west.[6] By the 6th century a civilization, titledChenla or Zhenla in Chinese annals, had firmly replaced Funan, as it controlled larger, more undulating areas of Indochina and maintained more than a singular center of power.[7][8]
The Khmer Empire was established by the early 9th century in a mythical initiation and consecration ceremony to claim political legitimacy by founderJayavarman II at Mount Kulen (Mount Mahendra) in 802 C.E.[9] A succession of powerful sovereigns, continuing theHindudevarajacult tradition, reigned over the classical era of Khmer civilization until the 11th century. A new dynasty of provincial origin introducedBuddhism as changes of religious, dynastic, administrative and military nature, environmental problems and ecological imbalance[10] coincide with shifts of power in Indochina.[11][12][13][14]
Theroyal chronology ends in the 14th century. Great achievements inadministration, and accomplishments inagriculture,architecture,hydrology,logistics,urban planning andthe arts are testimony to a creative and progressive civilization - in its complexity a cornerstone of Southeast Asian cultural legacy.[15]
In 1963 E. Saurin and J-P Carbonnel identified what they believed to be stone tools dating from c.600,000 BP at Sre Sbov in Kratie province; in 2009 a re-examination of the site indicated that the artifacts are results of prehistoricfluvial movement and do not indicate earlystone technology.[16]
The earliest traces of human presence inCambodia have been found atLaang Spean, a cave inBattambang province. Starting in 2009 archaeological research of the Franco-Cambodian Prehistoric Mission has documented an incomplete cultural sequence from c.70,000 BP to theNeolithic, with clear evidence of aHoabinhian cultural presence.[17] Equally significant is the siteSamrong Sen inKampong Chhnang Province which was occupied since around 1500 BC and the relative recent site ofPhum Snay.[1][2][18]
Recent archaeological finds (since 2012) indicate that parts of the region now called Cambodia were inhabited during the second and first millenniaBC by aNeolithic hunter and gatherer culture that may have migrated from southeastern China to theIndochinese Peninsula, responsible for the construction of circularearthworks.[19] TheIron Age period beginning around 500 BC, the inhabitants had developed complex, organised societies and a varied religious cosmology by the 1st centuryCE and engaging in maritime trade, resulting in socio-political interaction with theIndosphere.[5] These original inhabitants spoke advancedAustroasiatic languages and participated in the exchange of contemporary technologies.[20][21]
The Khmer people's founding legend centers around an Indiankurmi or prince namedPreah Thong in Khmer,dhruv in Sanskrit and Hun-t’ien in Chinese records, who marries the local ruler's daughter, aNaga princess named NagiSoma (Lieu-Ye in Chinese records), thus establishing the firstCambodian royal dynasty.[22] One day the princess saw the Kurmi on a boat and went to speak with him, but was shot by one of his magic arrows which made her fall in love with him. Her father drank all the water that inundated the land and gave the new land to them as adowry.[23]
TheNāga are a pan-Asian mythical race of reptilian beings, who in Cambodia were believed to possess a large empire or kingdom in the Pacific Ocean region. Cambodians today still say that they are "Born from the Naga" See:Sage Kambu Swayambhuva.
At about the time that Western Europe was absorbing the classical culture and institutions of the Mediterranean, the people of mainland andinsular Southeast Asia were responding to the stimulus of a civilization that had arisen inIndia during the previous millennium. The Indianization of Southeast Asia happened as a consequence of the increasing trade in theIndian Ocean.Vedic and Hindu religion, political thought, literature, mythology, and artistic motifs gradually became integral elements in local Southeast Asian cultures.[6] The Indianization stimulated the rise of highly organised, centralised states.
Funan, the earliest of the Indianised states, is generally considered to have been the first kingdom in the area. Found in the 1st century CE, Funan was located on the lower reaches of the Mekong River delta area, in what is today southeast Cambodia and the extreme south of Vietnam. Its capital, Vyadhapura, probably was located near the present-day town of Ba Phnom inPrey Veng Province. The earliest historical reference to Funan is a Chinese description of a mission that visited the country in the 3rd century. The name Funan is largely believed to be derived from theOld Khmer word 'Phnom' meaning mountain. The Funanese were likely ofAustroasiatic origin. What the Funanese called themselves, however, is not known.
During this early period in Funan's history, the population was probably concentrated in villages along the Mekong River and along theTonlé Sap River below theTonlé Sap. Traffic and communications were mostly waterborne on the rivers and their delta tributaries. The area was a natural region for the development of an economy based on fishing and rice cultivation. There is considerable evidence that the Funanese economy depended on rice surpluses produced by an extensive inlandirrigation system. Maritime trade played an extremely important role in the development of Funan, and the remains of what is believed to have been the kingdom's main port,Óc Eo (O'keo) (now part of Vietnam), contain Roman as well asPersian, Indian, andGreek artefacts.
By the 5th century, the state exercised control over the lower Mekong River area and the lands around the Tonle Sap. It also commanded tribute from smaller states in the area now comprising northern Cambodia, southernLaos, southernThailand, and the northern portion of theMalay Peninsula. Indianization was fostered by increasing contact with the subcontinent through the travels of merchants, diplomats, and learnedBrahmins. By the end of the 5th century, the elite culture was thoroughly Indianised. Court ceremony and the structure of political institutions were based on Indian models. TheSanskrit language was widely used; thelaws of Manu, the Indian legal code, were adopted; and an alphabet based on Indian writing systems was introduced.
Beginning in the early 6th century, civil wars and dynastic strife undermined Funan's stability. A former northern vassal turned to independent kingdom,Chenla, began to increase its power and status quo was achieved only through dynastic marriages. Eventually Funan was absorbed by the Khmer Chenla and became a vassal itself. Funan disappears from history in the 7th century.
The people of Chenla were probablyKhmer. Inscriptions prove thatKhmer script, adopted from south IndianPallava script, had fully developed and was in use alongsideSanskrit. Chenla is first mentioned in the ChineseSui dynasty's history as a Funan vassal. The founder of the kingdom, who managed to break free from Funan's control, was Strutavarman. A later king, Bhavarman, invaded Funan annexing it to Chenla's domains. Once they established control over Funan, they embarked on a course of conquest that continued for three centuries. They subjugated central and upper Laos, annexed portions of the Mekong Delta, and brought what are now western Cambodia and southern Thailand under their direct control.
At the same time, king Mahendravarman established peace with the neighbouring kingdom ofChampa through marriage arrangements, and Isnavarman, who succeeded him in 616, moved to a new capital, which, according to a Chinese writer, was inhabited by 20 thousands families. Culturally, the royal families of Chenla generally preserved the earlier political, social, and religious institutions of Funan, thus preserving the elements introduced from India. Chenla appears to have had a preference for Hinduism over other religions brought from there, like Buddhism.
In the 8th century, however, factional disputes at the Chenla court resulted in the splitting of the kingdom into rival northern and southern halves. According to Chinese chronicles, the two parts were known asLand Chenla [km] (or Upper Chenla) andWater Chenla [km] (or Lower Chenla). Land Chenla maintained a relatively stable existence, but Water Chenla underwent a period of constant turbulence, partly because of attacks from the sea by the Javanese and others. The Sailendra dynasty inJava actively tried to establish control on Water Chenla territories and eventually forced the kingdom to vassal status.
The last of the Water Chenla kings allegedly was killed around 790 by a Javanese monarch whom he had offended. The ultimate victor in the strife that followed was the ruler of a small Khmer state located north of the Mekong Delta. His assumption of the throne asJayavarman II (ca. 802 - 850) marked the liberation of the Khmer people from Javanese suzerainty and the beginning of a Khmer empire.
The classic period orKhmer Empire lasted from the early 9th century to the early 15th century. Technical and artistic progress, greatest cultural achievements, political integrity and administrative stability marked the golden age of Khmer civilization. The ruins of great temple complexes surrounded by an elaborate hydraulic network - the capital cities ofAngkor, located north of theTonle Sap lake near the modern town ofSiem Reap, are a lasting monument to the accomplishments of Jayavarman II and his successors.[24]
Jayavarman II settled north of the Tonle Sap and foundedHariharalaya, at modern day Roluos.[25]Indravarman I (877 - 889) extended Khmer control as far west as theKorat Plateau in Thailand, and he ordered the construction of a huge reservoir north of the capital to provide irrigation for wet rice cultivation. His son,Yasovarman I (889 - 900), built the Eastern Baray (reservoir or tank), evidence of which remains to the present time. Its dikes, which may be seen today, are more than 6 kilometres long and 1.6 kilometres wide.[26]
The elaborate system of canals and reservoirs built under Indravarman I and his successors were the key to Kambuja's prosperity for half a millennium. By freeing cultivators from dependence on unreliable seasonal monsoons, they made possible an early "green revolution" that provided the country with large surpluses of rice. The empire's decline during the 13th and 14th centuries probably was hastened by the deterioration of the irrigation system. Attacks by Thai and other foreign peoples and the internal discord caused by dynastic rivalries diverted human resources from the system's upkeep, and it gradually fell into disrepair.[27]
Suryavarman II (1113 - 1150), one of the greatest Angkorian monarchs, expanded his kingdom's territory in a series of successful wars against the kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam and the small Mon polities as far west as theIrrawaddy River of Burma. He reduced to vassalage the Thai peoples who had migrated into Southeast Asia from the Yunnan region of southern China and established his suzerainty over the northern part of the Malay Peninsula. His greatest achievement was the construction of the temple city complex of Angkor Wat. The largest religious edifice in the world, Angkor Wat is considered the greatest single architectural work in Southeast Asia.
Territorial expansion came to a halt when Suryavarman II was killed in battle attempting to invadeĐại Việt. With Đại Việt's support, theCham quickly drove Khmer presence out ofChampa territory. Suryavarman II's reign was then followed by thirty years of dynastic upheaval and an invasion in revenge by the neighbouring Cham, who destroyed the city of Angkor in 1177.
The Cham ultimately were driven out byJayavarman VII, whose reign (1181 - ca. 1218) marked the apogee of Kambuja's power. Unlike his predecessors, who had adopted the worship of the Hindu god-king, Jayavarman VII was a fervent patron of Mahayana Buddhism. Casting himself as abodhisattva, he embarked on a frenzy of building activity that included theAngkor Thom complex and theBayon, a remarkable temple whose stone towers depict 216 faces of buddhas, gods, and kings.
He also built over 200 rest houses and hospitals throughout his kingdom. Like the Roman emperors, he maintained a system of roads between his capital and provincial towns. According to historianGeorges Coedès, "No other Cambodian king can claim to have moved so much stone." Often, quality suffered for the sake of size and rapid construction, as is revealed in the intriguing but poorly constructed Bayon.
Carvings show that everyday Angkorian buildings were wooden structures not much different from those found in Cambodia today. The impressive stone buildings were not used as residences by members of the royal family. Rather, they were the focus of Hindu or Buddhist beliefs that celebrated the divinity, or buddhahood, of the monarch and his family. Coedès suggests that they had the dual function of both temple and tomb. Typically, their dimensions reflected the structure of the Hindu mythological universe.
For example, five towers at the centre of theAngkor Wat complex represent the peaks ofMount Meru, the centre of the universe; an outer wall represents the mountains that ring the world's edge; and a moat depicts the cosmic ocean. Like many other ancient edifices, the monuments of the Angkorian region absorbed vast reserves of resources and human labour and their purpose remains shrouded in mystery.
Angkorian society was strictly hierarchical. The king, regarded as divine, owned both the land and his subjects. Immediately below the monarch and the royal family were the Brahman priesthood and a small class of officials, who numbered about 4,000 in the 10th century. Next were the commoners, who were burdened with heavy corvée (forced labour) duties. There was also a large slave class who built the enduring monuments.
After Jayavarman VII's death, Kambuja entered a long period of decline that led to its eventual disintegration. The Thai were a growing menace on the empire's western borders. The spread ofTheravada Buddhism, which came to Kambuja fromSri Lanka by way of the Mon kingdoms, challenged the royal Hindu andMahayana Buddhism. Preaching austerity and the salvation of the individual through his or own her efforts, Theravada Buddhism did not lend doctrinal support to a society ruled by an opulent royal establishment maintained through the virtual slavery of the masses.
In 1353 a Thai army captured Angkor. It was recaptured by the Khmer, but wars continued and the capital was looted several times. During the same period, Khmer territory north of the present Laotian border was lost to the Lao kingdom ofLan Xang. In 1431 the Thai captured Angkor Thom. Thereafter, the Angkorian region did not again encompass a royal capital, except for a brief period in the third quarter of the 16th century.[28]
We have evidence of cave dwellers in northwestern Cambodia living as long ago as 5000 BCE.
The Mekong delta played a central role in the development of Cambodia's earliest complex polities from approximately 500 BC to AD 600...
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)the development of maritime commerce and Hindu influence stimulated early state formation in polities along the coasts of mainland Southeast Asia, where passive indigenous populations embraced notions of statecraft and ideology introduced by outsiders...
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