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Dominium mundiis the idea of universal dominion. It was developed in theMiddle Ages. Inspired by the memory of theRoman Empire,dominium mundi implied the recognition of one supreme authority, which generated a prolonged political and spiritual struggle between imperial and ecclesiastical power. This struggle can be said to have begun with theInvestiture Controversy, and was mainly embodied by theHoly Roman Empire andCatholic Church, which elevated theemperor and thePope, respectively, to the status of supreme ruler.
The idea of universal dominion dividedItaly into the warring faction ofGuelphs and Ghibellines. Guelphs supported the Church, while the Ghibellines supported the Empire. After two hundred years of division during the 12th and 13th centuries, neither one of the powers had prevailed, due to their mutual dependency and the rise of the powerful and practically independent reigns ofChurch and the State. The idea ofdominium mundidid not reappear in its original form, despite the fact that bothuniversal powers subsisted.
During the reign ofFrederick I (1152–1190), the imperial idea had already reached maturity. Its continuity was emphasized inEurope from the Roman times, through the link to theCarolingian Empire. In fact, Frederick I spoke aboutCharlemagne as the model of emperors and had him canonized in 1165 without the requirements. The thesis on the public sovereignty thatRoman law (rediscovered by the European jurists and politicians in the twelfth century) has were also used in favor of the imperialist ideals. It was of them that it was deduced the oneness and the universal character of theHoly Roman Empire, considered "a project of worldwide dominion" that symbolized the whole period. Given these premises, it was believed in the court of Frederick I that the Empire, was sacred as it was established directly by divine will to act as a form of political organization forhumanity. The expressionSacrum Imperium appears for the first time in a document of 1157.
Notwithstanding, it cannot be forgotten that the 12th century saw the beginning of the revitalization of the monarchic power overfeudalism, after several centuries of deep decay of royal authority. The Empire did not stay at the margin of this evolution instead recovering strongly its prestige. Nevertheless, it was badly managed, causing important consequences for the political future of the territories ofGermany andItaly. The reconstruction of the monarchies also went against the projectedDominium Mundi. Because of this, Frederick I, as well as his son and successorHenry VI, tried to conciliate both events imagining a universal temporal empire, at whose front was an emperor with supreme authority, superior to the power of various kings, called "régulos" or "local kings". This supreme authority seemed necessary, because it was believed that the Empire was the way to maintain unity in Christianity in preparation for theend times. Without considering thiseschatological andmessianic element, one cannot correctly understand what the Empire meant for the men of the time, in particular for emperor Frederick I.
The foundations of the ecclesiastical vision can be exemplified by these sources:
In the 12th and 13th centuries the rediscovery of old Roman law and theordenación of thecanon law sparked a new era for the legal ordering of thewestern world. This deeply influenced the politics of the time, especially in the course of the struggle of theDominium Mundi between the Empire and the Pontificate.The Roman law known by the medieval Europe was exclusively the compilation made by the emperorJustinian in the 6th century, which consists of several differentiated parts:
Of all these, the one of greatest influence in the medieval rediscovery was theDigest. The Justinian work would, starting in the 16th century, be known asCorpus Iuris Civilis, but at the time it lacked diffusion and was known through compendiums that deformed it.The renaissance in Roman studies during the 12th and 13th centuries that would influence all of Europe, occurred inBologna, a city in the ItalianRomagna. It wasn't small, in this diffusion, the role of the romano-Germanic emperors, who were moved by their political interests as much as by their supposed condition of successors to the oldRoman Empire. The teachers of this most famous "school of Bologna" acted according to a method of medieval study, the one ofglosses or commentary of the content and meaning of justinian texts. They are not critical commentaries, but rather, analytical. The bolognian professors accept justinian law as something superior, even supreme; they are limited to comment on it, without too much critical baggage, because for that they neededphilological command ofGreek language and study of original texts and historical knowledge, in which they were lacking. But from their commentary fundamental consequences for the Europe of the time are deduced, by the creation of a richcasuistry that covered a field of superior and more ample legal hypothesis from what was widely known until then. The foundation of this school of bolognian professors is due toIrnerius at the beginning of the 12th century. Disciples of his wereHugo de Porta Ravennate,Bulgarus,Jacobus de Boragine andMartinus Gosia, called "the four doctors" because of their wisdom and influences. All of them wereGhibellines (supported the idea of theEmpire being over the pontificate) and in favor ofFrederick I, of whom they were contemporary.
Around the same time, with some decades of difference, a systematization of the ecclesiastical law took place, which was going to give birth to the canon law in all its fullness. Romanists and canon lawyers were brothers of mentality and duties, although the later defended the pontifical rights. The first one to compile and systematize the previous universal council canons wasGraciano, atheology teacher from bologna, who wrote ca. 1140 hisConcordance of the Discordances of the Canons, commonly calledDecree. The work of Graciano did not have official status, but it reached great prestige and caused in the following decades a height in legal consultations formulated to thepontiff s, something to be expected at a time of insufficient organization of the civil power. These answered by means oflitteras decretals or "decretals", whose compilation became necessary, as the only way to use and preserve the judiciary wealth they had, since they not only affected ecclesiastical matters, but also those of civilians and secular people.
The first compilation was made byRaymond of Peñafort, aDominicanCatalan, and is namedGregory IX Decretals; it reunites the decretals appeared between 1154 and 1234 and is divided in five books, this being the reason the following compilation, which includes material up until 1298, was knownLiber sextus ("Sixth book"). In the 14th century new compilations were made,Clementines, and theExtravagantes, ofJohn XXII andComunas. From the 16th century on, all canon law in its recognized compendiums will take the official name ofCorpus iuris canonici. Tee Decree of pontifical Graciano and the Decretals were commented by the same procedure of glosses as was applied to the Roman law. Some of the main glossists played a decisive role in the struggle against the Empire: Rolando Bandinelli (Pope Alexander III) and Sinibaldo Fieschi (Pope Innocent IV). The synthesis of the glosses was made, mainly, byBartholomew de Brescia, in the 12th century, and also byJuan the Teutónico, in the 13th century, ofHugh of Pisa andHenry of Segusio.
On his return fromItaly, after being crowned Holy Roman Emperor byPope Adrian IV, Frederick I summoned adiet in Besançon (1157), with object to reform the political statute of his kingdom inArles. In that diet the first differences between the high civil employees of the emperor, in special took place the chancellor Rainaldo de Dassel, and the pontifical legacy, and futurePope Alexander III, Rolando Bandinelli. The complaint between theocrats and avivava, being the pretext the interpretation of a papal document in which it was alluded to the "benefits" thatPontiff granted toemperor. The word "benefit", in that then, had a very specific meaning, because vassals were the ones who received benefits orfiefs from theirlord. To thus Rainaldo de Dassel understood it and, put forth the argument that, Rolando Bandinelli did not gain a disadvantage in accepting the thesis of its rival: in effect, for him, the emperor received the Empire as a "benefit" of thePope.Adrian IV, the Pope of English origin that crowned emperor Frederick I, clarified later that the word had a more general sense: the Pope granted spiritual benefits, notfiefdoms. But the complaint had been revived, and when Rolando Bandinelli was raised to the pontifical seat asAlexander III, it was as a true restorer ofpapal authority (in the spirit ofPope Gregory VII). Theories that no longer had the energetic simplicity of the Gregorian times. In first half of the 12th century, mainly, some authors continued the theses ofGregory VII, like Hugo of San Victor, John of Salisbury or Honorio Augustodunense, but the predominant theories assimilate in some form the new realities: rediscovery of theRoman Law, affirmation of the political powers, complication of the social scheme in a world in which the possible offices and individual situations are multiplied, breaking the primitive ideal of the "trinitarian society" (politicians, the military and agriculturists).
In 1158 took place the second travels imperial toItaly. Shortly after, the death ofAdrian IV opened a successory crisis in the pontificate. Around both facts the first propitiousconjuncture for the confrontation betweenemperor andPope takes place.Frederick tried to subjugate the Lombard cities.Milan was raised at the top of this new urban world. The emperor besieged it and forced it to capitulate, preserving its internal autonomy but accepting totally the imperial authority. Next, Frederick reunited to one magna assembly in Roncaglia with the purpose of reorganizing the administration of the kingdom ofItaly and recovering in him all his authority. It seemed to obtain it, but the resistance against its measures would raise to the cities and would renew its old "entente" with the Pontiff, for whom the constitution of an imperial power hard in the north and center of Italy was more serious the immediate danger against its political independence.
WhenAdrian IV died, the 24 cardinals in favor of opposing the dominion of Frederick I in Italy chosePope Alexander III, while the three that preferred to reconcile gave their vote to cardinal Octavian, who was titled Victor IV. The split allowed Frederick to attempt a conciliation inPavia (January 1160), where Pope Victor IV was recognized, while Alexander III looked for support in the Norman kingdom of the south of Italy, whose kings were vassals ofThe Holy See, and in other European countries, to foment opposition against the emperor.Milan again revolted in 1161, but it was conquered by force of arms and devastated; shortly after, Alexander III was forced to divide forFrance. Frederick won, but Alexander was thePope recognized byEurope, except forthe Empire, and, even so, he counted within this one frightful allies, in particular inItaly, where the emperor and his chancellors, Rainaldo de Dassel and Christian de Bach, organizedauthoritarian government to counter the old local autonomies, that were not resigned to accept their new lot without resistance.
The death of Victor IV also deprivedFrederick of an important support, becauseantipopes that made choose to happen to him (Paschal III,Callixtus III) did not have possible justification nor were recognized willingly by his ownGerman clergy, since theEmperor took advantage of the circumstances to intervene himself in the ecclesiastical life like at the worse moments of "Investiture Controversy": In 1165, synod ofWürzburg andCanonization ofCharlemagne was the culmination of imperial interventionism. In addition, the dispute with Alexander III forced him to make concessions and to obtain alliances inGermany as well as in other countries. Great Germannobles made Frederick pay dearly for their fidelity and, in the outside, Frederick looked for so much the French alliance, never obtained, like the English, taking advantage of the existing fight between the kingHenry II of England and theArchbishop of Canterbury,Thomas Becket.
1152: Frederick succeedsConrad III. First conflict with thePope. The Scandinavian churches are separated fromHamburg.
1153:Treaty of Constance between Frederick andEugene III.
1154: Frederick inItaly; decree of Roncaglia. Violence against the Italian communes.Adrian IV, the Pope.
1155: Imperial coronation of Frederick. Revolt ofRome and retreat of the emperor, who restitutesBavaria toHenry the Lion. Alliance between Adrian IV andWilliam I of Sicily. Concordato de Benevento.Austria, independent countship.
1157: Assembly of Besançon. Rupture betweenemperor and the Pope.
1158: Shaken and punishment ofMilan. Diet of Roncaglia.
1159: New revolt of Milan. Siege ofCrema, Italy. Death of Adrian IV. Alexander III, Pope, and Victor IV,antipope.
1160: Storming and destruction of Crema. Beginning of the siege of Milan. Assembly of Pavia.
1162: Taking and destruction of Milan. Alliance of Frederick withPisa andGenoa againstWilliam I of Sicily. Project of interview between Frederick andLouis VII of France to end the schism.Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury.
1162 - 1165: The German clergy happens to the party of Alexander III.
1163: Council of Tours.
1164:Venice forms the so-called League of Verona against Frederick. Death of the antipope Victor IV, happening Paschal III to him.
1165: Diet of Würzburg. Persecution against those in favor of Alexander III.Henry II of England breaks with Alexander III and recognizes Paschal III.
1167: Frederick seizes Rome. Formation ofLombard League, that is allied to the one of Verona.
1168: Foundation ofAlessandria in Piedmont by the cities lombardas in honor of Alexander III. Death ofPaschal III.
1170:Lombard League is put under the protection of Alexander III. Negotiations of Veroli between the Pope and the emperor.
1174 - 1175: Siege ofAlessandria by Frederick.
1175: Truce of Montebello.
1176: Frederick is defeated at theBattle of Legnano by the Italian communes. Conversations of Agnani with Pope Alexander III.
1177: Peace ofVenice.
1179: Rupture between the emperor andHenry the Lion. I conciliate ofLetrán: reorganization of the papal election.
1180: War against Henry the Lion.
1181: Reconciliation between Frederick and Henry the Lion. Death of Alexander III.
1183: Preliminaries of Plasencia and peace of Constanza.
1184: Diet ofMainz: wedding ofHenry andConstance of Sicily. Diet of Verona.
1185: Alliance between Frederick and Milan.
1186: Rupture between Urban and Frederick. Assembly of Gelnhausen.
1188: Reconciliation of the Pope with the Roman commune.
1189: Reconciliation between Pope and emperor. Death ofWilliam II of Sicily; it happens the son of the emperor and future to himEnrique IV.
1190:Third Crusade: death of Frederick inAsia Minor.
(in chronological order)
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