In the context ofnutrition, amineral is achemical element. Some "minerals" areessential for life, but most are not.[1][2][3]Minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients; the others arevitamins,essential fatty acids, andessential amino acids.[4] The five major minerals in the human body arecalcium,phosphorus,potassium,sodium, andmagnesium.[2] The remaining minerals are called "trace elements". The generally accepted trace elements areiron,chlorine,cobalt,copper,zinc,manganese,molybdenum,iodine,selenium,[5] andbromine;[6] there is some evidence that there may be more.
The four organogenic elements, namelycarbon,hydrogen,oxygen, andnitrogen (CHON), that comprise roughly 96% of thehuman body by weight,[7] are usually not considered as minerals (nutrient). In fact, in nutrition, the term "mineral" refers more generally to all the other functional and structural elements found in living organisms.
Plants obtain minerals fromsoil.[8] Animals ingest plants, thus moving minerals up thefood chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil (geophagia) or use mineral resources such assalt licks to obtain minerals.
Finally, although mineral and elements are in many ways synonymous, minerals are onlybioavailable to the extent that they can be absorbed. To be absorbed, minerals either must be soluble or readily extractable by the consuming organism. For example, molybdenum is an essential mineral, but metallic molybdenum has no nutritional benefit. Many molybdates are sources of molybdenum.
Twenty chemical elements are known to berequired to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles, and there is evidence for a few more.[1][9]
Oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen are the most abundant elements in the body by weight and make up about 96% of the weight of a human body. Calcium makes up 920 to 1200 grams of adult body weight, with 99% of it contained in bones and teeth. This is about 1.5% of body weight.[2] Phosphorus occurs in amounts of about 2/3 of calcium, and makes up about 1% of a person's body weight.[10] The other major minerals (potassium, sodium, chlorine,sulfur and magnesium) make up only about 0.85% of the weight of the body. Together these eleven chemical elements (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) make up 99.85% of the body. The remaining ≈18ultratrace minerals comprise just 0.15% of the body, or about one hundred grams in total for the average person. Total fractions in this paragraph are amounts based on summing percentages from the article onchemical composition of the human body.
Some diversity of opinion exist about the essential nature of various ultratrace elements in humans (and other mammals), even based on the same data. For example, whetherchromium is essential in humans is debated. No Cr-containing biochemical has been purified. The United States and Japan designate chromium as an essential nutrient,[11][12] but theEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA), representing the European Union, reviewed the question in 2014 and does not agree.[13]
Most of the known and suggested mineral nutrients are of relatively lowatomic weight, and are reasonably common on land, or for sodium and iodine, in the ocean. They also tend to have soluble compounds at physiological pH ranges: elements without such soluble compounds tend to be either non-essential (Al) or, at best, may only be needed in traces (Si).[1]
| Essential elements for higher organisms (eucarya).[14][15][16][17][1][6][18] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H | He | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Li | Be | B | C | N | O | F | Ne | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K | Ca | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Rb | Sr | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cs | Ba | Lu | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Legend: Quantity elements Essentialtrace elements Essentiality or function debated Not essential in humans, but essential/beneficial for some non-human eucarya |
| Dietary element | RDA/AI male/female (US) [mg][19] | UL (US and EU) [mg][19][20] | Category | High nutrient density dietary sources | Terms for deficiency/excess |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Potassium | 4700 | NE;NE | A systemicelectrolyte and is essential in coregulatingATP with sodium | Sweet potato, tomato, potato, beans, lentils, dairy products, seafood, banana, prune, carrot, orange[21] | hypokalemia /hyperkalemia |
| Chlorine | 2300 | 3600;NE | Needed for production ofhydrochloric acid in the stomach, in cellular pump functions and required in host defense | Table salt (sodium chloride) is the main dietary source. | hypochloremia /hyperchloremia |
| Sodium | 1500 | 2300;NE | A systemic electrolyte and is essential in coregulatingATP with potassium | Table salt (sodium chloride, the main source),sea vegetables, milk, andspinach. | hyponatremia /hypernatremia |
| Calcium | 1000 | 2500; 2500 | Needed for muscle, heart and digestive system health, builds bone (seehydroxyapatite), supports synthesis and function of blood cells, helps in blood clotting | Dairy products, eggs,canned fish with bones (salmon, sardines),green leafy vegetables,nuts,seeds, tofu, thyme, oregano, dill, cinnamon.[22] | hypocalcaemia /hypercalcaemia |
| Phosphorus | 700 | 4000; 4000 | A component of bones (seehydroxyapatite), cells, in energy processing, in DNA and ATP (as phosphate) and many other functions | Red meat, dairy foods,fish, poultry, bread, rice, oats.[23][24] In biological contexts, usually seen asphosphate[25] | hypophosphatemia /hyperphosphatemia |
| Magnesium | 420/320 | 350; 250 | Required for processingATP and for bones | Spinach,legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, peanut butter, avocado[26] | hypomagnesemia (magnesium deficiency) /hypermagnesemia |
| Iron | 8/18 | 45;NE | Required for many proteins and enzymes, notablyhemoglobin to preventanemia | Meat, seafood, nuts, beans, dark chocolate[27] | iron deficiency /iron overload disorder |
| Zinc | 11/8 | 40; 25 | Required for several classes of enzymes such asmatrix metalloproteinases,liver alcohol dehydrogenase,carbonic anhydrase andzinc finger proteins | Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[28] | zinc deficiency /zinc toxicity |
| Manganese | 2.3/1.8 | 11;NE | Required co-factor forsuperoxide dismutase | Grains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[29] | manganese deficiency /manganism |
| Copper | 0.9 | 10; 5 | Required co-factor forcytochrome c oxidase | Liver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[29] | copper deficiency /copper toxicity |
| Iodine | 0.150 | 1.1; 0.6 | Required for the synthesis ofthyroid hormones and to help enzymes in host defense | Seaweed (kelp orkombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[30] | iodine deficiency (goiter) /iodism (hyperthyroidism[31]) |
| Molybdenum | 0.045 | 2; 0.6 | Required for the functioning ofxanthine oxidase,aldehyde oxidase, andsulfite oxidase[32] | Legumes, whole grains, nuts[29] | molybdenum deficiency / molybdenum toxicity[33] |
| Selenium | 0.055 | 0.4; 0.3 | Essential to activity ofantioxidant enzymes likeglutathione peroxidase | Brazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[34] | selenium deficiency /selenosis |
| Cobalt | NE (trace);NE (trace) | NE;NE | Cobalt (asvitamin B12) is required for thesynthesis of DNA,erythropoiesis (red blood cell formation), and the development, myelination, and function of thecentral nervous system. It is available for use by animals only after having been processed by bacteria. Humans contain only milligrams of cobalt in these cofactors[35] | Animal muscle and liver are good dietary sources, also shellfish and crab meat[36] | pernicious anemia /cobalt poisoning |
| Sulfur | NE (abundant);NE (abundant) | NE;NE | Sulfur (as essential amino acidmethionine and its derivativecysteine) is required for thesynthesis of proteins,antioxidation, and the transcription, epigenetic expression, and gene regulation ofDNA. It is unusual in that it is a mineral that may be taken in both inorganic and organic combinations. Sulfur is the most abundant mineral found in our body after calcium and phosphorus[37] | Nuts, legumes, meats, eggs, fish, seafood, also fermented foods[38] | compromisedglutathione synthesis[37] /hyperhomocysteinemia |
| Bromine | NE (trace);NE (trace) | NE;NE | Important tobasement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to makecollagen IV[6][17] | bromism |
RDA =Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI = Adequate intake; UL =Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31–50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating
* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[39]
Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juicefortified with calcium;iodized salt fortified withiodine).Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination ofvitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such ascalcium (calcium carbonate,calcium citrate) ormagnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).[citation needed]
The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting thebiochemical reactions ofmetabolism with the required elemental components.[40] Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.
The list of minerals required for plants is similar to that for animals. Both use very similar enzymes, although differences exist. For example, legumes host molybdenum-containingnitrogenase, but animals do not. Many animals rely on hemoglobin (Fe) for oxygen transport, but plants do not. Fertilizers are often tailored to address mineral deficiencies in particular soils. Examples includemolybdenum deficiency,manganese deficiency,zinc deficiency, and so on.
The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safeupper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium theU.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day.[19] The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S.[20] Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU.[39] In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.[42]
Manyultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.[5] One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples:silicon andnickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[40] Some elements were once thought to have a role with unknown biochemical nature, but the evidence has not always been strong.[5] For example, it was once thought thatarsenic was probably essential in mammals,[43] but it seems to be only used by microbes;[6] and whilechromium was long thought to be an essential trace element based on rodent models, and was proposed to be involved inglucose andlipid metabolism,[44][45] more recent studies have conclusively ruled this possibility out. It may still have a role in insulin signalling, but the evidence is not clear, and it only seems to occur at doses not found in normal diets.[6]Boron is essential to plants,[46][47][48] but not animals.[6]
Non-essential elements can sometimes appear in the body when they are chemically similar to essential elements (e.g. Rb+ and Cs+ replacing Na+), so that essentiality is not the same thing as uptake by a biological system.[1]
| Element | Description | Excess |
|---|---|---|
| Nickel | Nickel is an essential component of severalenzymes, includingurease andhydrogenase.[49] Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties ofBifidobacterium.[50] In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certainmetalloenzymes involved inhydrolysis,redox reactions andgene expression. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulatingthyroid hormone concentration in rats.[51] | Nickel toxicity |
| Fluorine | There is no evidence that fluorine is essential, but it is beneficial.[6][52] Research indicates that the primary dental benefit fromfluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure.[53][54] Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established anAdequate Intake.[55] | Fluoride poisoning |
| Lithium | Based on plasma lithium concentrations, biological activity and epidemiological observations, there is evidence, not conclusive, that lithium is an essential nutrient.[15][16] | Lithium toxicity |
| Silicon | Silicon is beneficial to most plants, but usually not essential. It seems to have beneficial effects in humans, strengthening bones and connective tissue, but these effects are still being studied. In any case deficiency symptoms do not arise because silicon occurs significantly in food made from plants.[6] | |
| Vanadium | Has an established, albeit specialized, biochemical role in other organisms (algae, lichens, fungi, bacteria), and there is significant circumstantial evidence for its essentiality in humans. It is rather toxic for a trace element and the requirement, if essential, is probably small.[52] | |
| Other | There are several elements that are not used by mammals, but seem to be beneficial in other organisms:boron,aluminium,titanium,arsenic,rubidium,strontium,cadmium,antimony,tellurium,barium, the earlylanthanides (fromlanthanum togadolinium),tungsten, anduranium. (In the cases of Al and Rb the mechanism is not well understood.) In particular, B, Ti, Sr, Cd, and Ba are used by eukaryotes, and Al and Rb might be as well.[6][52] |
Diverse ions are used by animals andmicroorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, calledbiomineralization, used to constructbones,seashells,eggshells,[56]exoskeletons andmollusc shells.[57][citation needed]
Minerals can bebioengineered by bacteria which act on metals tocatalyze mineraldissolution andprecipitation.[58] Mineral nutrients arerecycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans,freshwater,groundwater, andglaciermeltwater systems worldwide.[58][59] Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavengephytoplanktonblooms.[59] Mineral nutrients cycle through this marinefood chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton toflagellates andzooplankton, which are then eaten by othermarine life.[58][59] Interrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to localecosystems.[60][61]
