Innaval terminology, adestroyer is a fast, maneuverable, long-endurancewarship intended to escortlarger vessels in afleet,convoy, orcarrier battle group and defend them against a wide range of general threats. They were originally conceived in 1885 byFernando Villaamil for theSpanish Navy[1][2] as a defense againsttorpedo boats, and by the time of theRusso-Japanese War in 1904, these "torpedo boat destroyers" (TBDs) were "large, swift, and powerfully armedtorpedo boats designed to destroy other torpedo boats".[3] Although the term "destroyer" had been used interchangeably with "TBD" and "torpedo boat destroyer" by navies since 1892, the term "torpedo boat destroyer" had been generally shortened to simply "destroyer" by nearly all navies by theFirst World War.[4]
BeforeWorld War II, destroyers were light vessels with little endurance for unattended ocean operations;[citation needed] typically, a number of destroyers and a singledestroyer tender operated together.[citation needed] After the war, destroyers grew in size. The AmericanAllen M. Sumner-class destroyers had a displacement of 2,200 tons, while theArleigh Burke class has a displacement of up to 9,600 tons, a difference of nearly 340%. Moreover, the advent of guided missiles allowed destroyers to take on the surface-combatant roles previously filled bybattleships andcruisers. This resulted in larger and more powerfulguided missile destroyers more capable of independent operation.
At the start of the 21st century, destroyers are the global standard forsurface-combatant ships, with only two nations (theUnited States andRussia) officially operating the heavier cruisers, with no battleships or truebattlecruisers remaining.[note 1] Modern guided-missile destroyers are equivalent intonnage but vastly superior in firepower to cruisers of the World War II era, and are capable of carryingnuclear-tippedcruise missiles. At 510 feet (160 m) long, a displacement of 9,200 tons, and with an armament of more than 90 missiles,[5] guided-missile destroyers such as theArleigh Burke class are actually larger and more heavily armed than most previous ships classified as guided-missile cruisers. The ChineseType 055 destroyer has been described as a cruiser in some US Navy reports due to its size and armament.[6]
The emergence and development of the destroyer was related to the invention of theself-propelled torpedo in the 1860s. A navy now had the potential to destroy a superior enemy battle fleet using steamlaunches to fire torpedoes. Cheap, fast boats armed with torpedoes calledtorpedo boats were built and became a threat to large capital ships near enemy coasts. The first seagoing vessel designed to launch the self-propelledWhitehead torpedo was the 33-tonHMS Lightning in 1876.[7] She was armed with two drop collars to launch these weapons; these were replaced in 1879 by a singletorpedo tube in the bow. By the 1880s, the type had evolved into small ships of 50–100 tons, fast enough to evade enemy picket boats.
At first, the threat of a torpedo-boat attack to a battle fleet was considered to exist only when at anchor, but as faster and longer-range torpedo boats and torpedoes were developed, the threat extended to cruising at sea. In response to this new threat, more heavily gunned picket boats called "catchers" were built, which were used to escort the battle fleet at sea. They needed significant seaworthiness and endurance to operate with the battle fleet, and as they inherently became larger, they became officially designated "torpedo-boat destroyers", and by the First World War were largely known as "destroyers" in English. The antitorpedo boat origin of this type of ship is retained in its name in other languages, includingFrench (contre-torpilleur),Italian (cacciatorpediniere),Portuguese (contratorpedeiro),Czech (torpédoborec),Greek (antitorpiliko,αντιτορπιλικό),Dutch (torpedobootjager) and, up until the Second World War,Polish (kontrtorpedowiec, now obsolete).[8]
Once destroyers became more than just catchers guarding an anchorage, they were recognized to be also ideal to take over the offensive role of torpedo boats themselves, so they were also fitted with torpedo tubes in addition to their antitorpedo-boat guns. At that time, and even into World War I, the only function of destroyers was to protect their own battle fleet from enemy torpedo attacks and to make such attacks on the battleships of the enemy. The task of escorting merchant convoys was still in the future.
An important development came with the construction ofHMSSwift in 1884, later redesignated TB 81.[9] This was a large (137 ton) torpedo boat with four47 mm quick-firing guns and three torpedo tubes. At 23.75knots (43.99 km/h; 27.33 mph), while still not fast enough to engage enemy torpedo boats reliably, the ship at least had the armament to deal with them.
Another forerunner of the torpedo-boat destroyer (TBD) was the Japanese torpedo boat[10]Kotaka (Falcon), built in 1885.[11] Designed to Japanese specifications and ordered from the Isle of Dogs, LondonYarrow shipyard in 1885, she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in 1887. The 165-foot (50 m) long vessel was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and sixtorpedo tubes, reached 19 knots (35 km/h), and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat built to date. In her trials in 1889,Kotaka demonstrated that she could exceed the role of coastal defense, and was capable of accompanying largerwarships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts forKotaka, "considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer".[12]
The GermanavisoGreif, launched in 1886, was designed as a "Torpedojäger" (torpedo hunter), intended to screen the fleet against attacks by torpedo boats. The ship was significantly larger than torpedo boats of the period, displacing some 2,266 t (2,230 long tons), with an armament of 10.5 cm (4.1 in) guns and 3.7 cm (1.5 in)Hotchkiss revolver cannon.[13]
The first vessel designed for the explicit purpose of hunting and destroying torpedo boats was thetorpedo gunboat. Essentially very small cruisers, torpedo gunboats were equipped with torpedo tubes and an adequate gun armament, intended for hunting down smaller enemy boats. By the end of the 1890s, torpedo gunboats were made obsolete by their more successful contemporaries, the TBDs, which were much faster.
The first example of this wasHMS Rattlesnake, designed byNathaniel Barnaby in 1885, and commissioned in response to theRussian War scare.[14] The gunboat was armed with torpedoes and designed for hunting and destroying smallertorpedo boats. Exactly 200 feet (61 m) long and 23 feet (7.0 m) in beam, she displaced 550 tons. Built of steel,Rattlesnake was unarmoured with the exception of a3⁄4-inch protective deck. She was armed with a single4-inch/25-pounder breech-loading gun, six3-pounder QF guns and four 14-inch (360 mm) torpedo tubes, arranged with two fixed tubes at the bow and a set of torpedo-dropping carriages on either side. Four torpedo reloads were carried.[14]
A number of torpedo gunboat classes followed, including theGrasshopper class, theSharpshooter class, theAlarm class, and theDryad class – all built for the Royal Navy during the 1880s and the 1890s. In the 1880s, theChilean Navy ordered the construction of twoAlmirante Lynch class torpedo gunboats from the British shipyard Laird Brothers, which specialized in the construction of this type of vessel. The novelty is that one of theseAlmirante Lynch-class torpedo boats managed to sink the ironcladBlanco Encalada with self-propelled torpedoes in theBattle of Caldera Bay in 1891, thus surpassing its main function of hunting torpedo boats.
Fernando Villaamil, second officer of the Ministry of theNavy of Spain, designed his own torpedo gunboat to combat the threat from the torpedo boat.[15] He asked several British shipyards to submit proposals capable of fulfilling these specifications. In 1885, the Spanish Navy chose the design submitted by the shipyard of James andGeorge Thomson ofClydebank.Destructor (Destroyer in Spanish) was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887. Some authors considered her as the first destroyer ever built.[16][17]
Spanish warshipDestructor in 1890, the first destroyer ever built
She displaced 348 tons, and was the first warship[18] equipped with twintriple-expansion engines generating 3,784 ihp (2,822 kW), for a maximum speed of 22.6 knots (41.9 km/h),[19] which made her one of the faster ships in the world in 1888.[20] She was armed with one 90 mm (3.5 in) Spanish-designedHontoriabreech-loading gun,[1] four 57 mm (2.2 in) (6-pounder)Nordenfelt guns, two 37 mm (1.5 in) (3-pdr)Hotchkiss cannons and two 15-inch (38 cm)Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes.[19] The ship carried three torpedoes per tube.[1] She carried a crew of 60.[19]
In terms of gunnery, speed, and dimensions, the specialised design to chase torpedo boats and her high-seas capabilities,Destructor was an important precursor to the TBD.[21][1]
These ships all featured a turtleback (i.e. rounded)forecastle that was characteristic of early British TBDs.HMS Daring andHMS Decoy were both built byThornycroft, displaced 260 tons (287.8 tons full load), and were 185 feet in length. They were armed with one12-pounder gun and three 6-pounder guns, with one fixed 18-in torpedo tube in the bow plus two more torpedo tubes on a revolving mount abaft the two funnels. Later, the bow torpedo tube was removed and two more 6-pounder guns added, instead. They produced 4,200 hp from a pair of Thornycroft water-tube boilers, giving them a top speed of 27 knots, giving the range and speed to travel effectively with a battle fleet. In common with subsequent early Thornycroft boats, they had sloping sterns and double rudders.[23]
The French navy, an extensive user of torpedo boats, built its first TBD in 1899, with theDurandal-classtorpilleur d'escadre. The United States commissioned its first TBD,USS Bainbridge, Destroyer No. 1, in 1902, and by 1906, 16 destroyers were in service with the US Navy.[24]
Builders' plans for the BritishCharger class, built 1894–95
Torpedo boat destroyer designs continued to evolve around the turn of the 20th century in several key ways. The first was the introduction of thesteam turbine. The spectacular unauthorized demonstration of the turbine-poweredTurbinia at the 1897 Spithead Navy Review, which, significantly, was of torpedo-boat size, prompted the Royal Navy to order a prototype turbine-powered destroyer,HMS Viper of 1899. This was the first turbine warship of any kind, and achieved a remarkable 34 knots (63 km/h; 39 mph) on sea trials. By 1910, the turbine had been widely adopted by all navies for their faster ships.[7]
The second development was the replacement of the torpedo boat-style turtleback foredeck by a raised forecastle for the newRiver-class destroyers built in 1903, which provided better sea-keeping and more space below deck.
The first warship to use onlyfuel oil propulsion was the Royal Navy's TBDHMS Spiteful, after experiments in 1904, although the obsolescence of coal as a fuel in British warships was delayed by oil's availability.[25][26] Other navies also adopted oil, for instance the USN with thePaulding class of 1909.In spite of all this variety, destroyers adopted a largely similar pattern. The hull was long and narrow, with a relatively shallow draft. The bow was either raised in a forecastle or covered under a turtleback; underneath this were the crew spaces, extending1⁄4 to1⁄3 the way along the hull. Aft of the crew spaces was as much engine space as the technology of the time would allow - several boilers and engines or turbines. Above deck, one or more quick-firing guns were mounted in the bows, in front of the bridge; several more were mounted amidships and astern. Two tube mountings (later on, multiple mountings) were generally found amidships.
Between 1892 and 1914, destroyers became markedly larger; initially 275 tons with a length of 165 feet (50 m) for the Royal Navy's firstHavock class of TBDs,[27] up to the First World War with 300-foot (91 m) long destroyers displacing 1,000 tons was not unusual. Construction remained focused on putting the biggest possible engines into a small hull, though, resulting in a somewhat flimsy construction. Often, hulls were built ofhigh-tensile steel[7] only1⁄8 in (3.2 mm) thick.
By 1910, the steam-driven displacement (that is, nothydroplaning) torpedo boat had become redundant as a separate type. Germany, nevertheless, continued to build such boats until the end of World War I, although these were effectively small coastal destroyers. In fact, Germany never distinguished between the two types, giving them pennant numbers in the same series and never giving names to destroyers. Ultimately, the term "torpedo boat" came to be attached to a quite different vessel – the very fast-hydroplaning, motor-drivenmotor torpedo boat.
Navies originally built TBDrs to protect against torpedo boats, but admirals soon appreciated the flexibility of the fast, multipurpose vessels that resulted. Vice-Admiral SirBaldwin Walker laid down destroyer duties for the Royal Navy:[28]
Screening the advance of a fleet when hostile torpedo craft are about
Searching a hostile coast along which a fleet might pass
Watching an enemy's port for the purpose of harassing his torpedo craft and preventing their return
Attacking an enemy fleet
Early destroyers were extremely cramped places to live, being "without a doubt magnificent fighting vessels... but unable to stand bad weather".[29] During theRusso-Japanese War in 1904, the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy TBDAkatsuki[30][31][32] described "being in command of a destroyer for a long period, especially in wartime... is not very good for the health". Stating that he had originally been strong and healthy, he continued, "life on a destroyer in winter, with bad food, no comforts, would sap the powers of the strongest men in the long run. Adestroyer is always more uncomfortable than the others, and rain, snow, andsea-water combine to make them damp; in fact, in bad weather, there is not a dry spot where one can rest for a moment."[33]
The Japanese destroyer-commander finished with, "Yesterday, I looked at myself in a mirror for a long time; I was disagreeably surprised to see my face thin, full of wrinkles, and as old as though I were 50. My clothes (uniform) cover nothing but a skeleton, and my bones are full ofrheumatism."[33]
In 1898, the US Navy officially classifiedUSS Porter, a 175-foot (53 m) long all steel vessel displacing 165 tons, as a torpedo boat, but her commander, LT. John C. Fremont, described her as "...a compact mass of machinery not meant to keep the sea nor to live in... as five-sevenths of the ship are taken up by machinery and fuel, whilst the remaining two-sevenths, fore and aft, are the crew's quarters; officers forward and the men placed aft. And even in those spaces are placed anchor engines, steering engines, steam pipes, etc. rendering them unbearably hot in tropical regions."[34]
Three destroyer divisions attacked the Russian fleet in port, firing a total of 18 torpedoes, but only two Russian battleships,Tsesarevich andRetvizan, and aprotected cruiser,Pallada, were seriously damaged due to the proper deployment oftorpedo nets.Tsesarevich, the Russian flagship, had her nets deployed, with at least four enemy torpedoes "hung up" in them,[35] and other warships were similarly saved from further damage by their nets.[36]
While capital-ship engagements were scarce in World War I, destroyer units engaged almost continually in raiding and patrol actions. The first shot of the war at sea was fired on 5 August 1914 byHMS Lance, one of the3rd Destroyer Flotilla, in an engagement with the German auxiliaryminelayerKönigin Luise.[37]
Destroyers were involved in the skirmishes that prompted theBattle of Heligoland Bight, and filled a range of roles in theBattle of Gallipoli, acting as troop transports and as fire-support vessels, as well as their fleet-screening role. Over 80 British destroyers and 60 German torpedo boats took part in theBattle of Jutland, which involved pitched small-boat actions between the main fleets, and several foolhardy attacks by unsupported destroyers on capital ships. Jutland also concluded with a messy night action between the GermanHigh Seas Fleet and part of the British destroyer screen.
The threat evolved by World War I with the development of thesubmarine, orU-boat. The submarine had the potential to hide from gunfire and close underwater to fire torpedoes. Early-war destroyers had the speed and armament to intercept submarines before they submerged, either by gunfire or by ramming. Destroyers also had a shallow enough draft that they were difficult to hit with torpedoes.
HMS Badger was the first destroyer to successfully ram a submarine.
The desire to attack submarines under water led to rapid destroyer evolution during the war. They were quickly equipped with strengthened bows for ramming, anddepth charges andhydrophones for identifying submarine targets. The first submarine casualty credited to a destroyer was the GermanU-19, rammed byHMS Badger on 29 October 1914. WhileU-19 was only damaged, the next month,HMS Garry successfully sankU-18. The first depth-charge sinking was on 4 December 1916, whenUC-19[38] was sunk by HMSLlewellyn.
The submarine threat meant that many destroyers spent their time on antisubmarine patrol. Once Germany adoptedunrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, destroyers were called on to escort merchantconvoys. US Navy destroyers were among the first American units to be dispatched upon the American entry to the war, and a squadron of Japanese destroyers even joined Allied patrols in the Mediterranean. Patrol duty was far from safe; of the 67 British destroyers lost in the war, collisions accounted for 18, while 12 were wrecked.
At the end of the war, the state-of-the-art was represented by the BritishW class.
The trend during World War I had been towards larger destroyers with heavier armaments. A number of opportunities to fire at capital ships had been missed during the war, because destroyers had expended all their torpedoes in an initial salvo. The BritishV and W classes of the late war had sought to address this by mounting six torpedo tubes in two triple mounts, instead of the four or two on earlier models. The V and W classes set the standard of destroyer building well into the 1920s.
Two Romanian destroyersMărăști andMărășești, though, had the greatest firepower of all destroyers in the world throughout the first half of the 1920s. This was largely because, between their commissioning in 1920 and 1926, they retained the armament that they had while serving in the Italian Navy asscout cruisers (esploratori). When initially ordered by Romania in 1913, the Romanian specifications envisioned three 120 mm guns, a caliber which would eventually be adopted as the standard for future Italian destroyers. Armed with three 152 mm and four 76 mm guns after being completed as scout cruisers, the two warships were officially re-rated as destroyers by theRomanian Navy. The two Romanian warships were thus the destroyers with the greatest firepower in the world throughout much of the interwar period. As of 1939, when the Second World War started, their artillery, although changed, was still close to cruiser standards, amounting to nine heavy naval guns (five of 120 mm and four of 76 mm). In addition, they retained their two twin 457 mm torpedo tubes and two machine guns, plus the capacity to carry up to 50 mines.[39]
The next major innovation came with the JapaneseFubuki class or "special type", designed in 1923 and delivered in 1928. The design was initially noted for its powerful armament of six 5-inch (127 mm) guns and three triple torpedo mounts. The second batch of the class gave the guns high-angle turrets for antiaircraft warfare, and the 24-inch (61 cm), oxygen-fueled Long LanceType 93 torpedo. The laterHatsuharu class of 1931 further improved the torpedo armament by storing its reload torpedoes close at hand in the superstructure, allowing reloading within 15 minutes.
Most other nations replied with similar larger ships. The USPorter class adopted twin 5-inch (127 mm) guns, and the subsequentMahan class andGridley classes (the latter of 1934) increased the number of torpedo tubes to 12 and 16, respectively.
In the Mediterranean, the Italian Navy's building of very fast light cruisers of theCondottieri class prompted the French to produce exceptional destroyer designs. The French had long been keen on large destroyers, with theirChacal class of 1922 displacing over 2,000 tons and carrying 130 mm guns; a further three similar classes were produced around 1930. TheLe Fantasque class of 1935 carried five 138 millimetres (5.4 in) guns and nine torpedo tubes, but could achieve speeds of 45 knots (83 km/h), which remains the record speed for a steamship and for any destroyer.[40] The Italians' own destroyers were almost as swift; most Italian designs of the 1930s were rated at over 38 knots (70 km/h), while carrying torpedoes and either four or six 120 mm guns.
Germany started to build destroyers again during the 1930s as part of Hitler's rearmament program. The Germans were also fond of large destroyers, but while the initialType 1934 displaced over 3,000 tons, their armament was equal to smaller vessels. This changed from the Type 1936 onwards, which mounted heavy 150 millimetres (5.9 in) guns. German destroyers also used innovative high-pressure steam machinery; while this should have helped their efficiency, it more often resulted in mechanical problems.
HNLMSTjerk Hiddes, a British built N-class destroyer, laid down on 22 May 1940 and transferred to the Royal Netherlands Navy
Once German and Japanese rearmament became clear, the British and American navies consciously focused on building destroyers that were smaller, but more numerous than those used by other nations. The British built a series of destroyers (theA class toI class), which were about 1,400 tons standard displacement, and had four 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns and eight torpedo tubes; the AmericanBenson class of 1938 was similar in size, but carried five 5-inch (127 mm) guns and ten torpedo tubes. Realizing the need for heavier gun armament, the British built theTribal class of 1936 (sometimes calledAfridi after one of two lead ships). These ships displaced 1,850 tons and were armed with eight 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns in four twin turrets and four torpedo tubes. These were followed by theJ-class and L-class destroyers, with six 4.7-inch (119 mm) guns in twin turrets and eight torpedo tubes.
Antisubmarine sensors includedsonar (or ASDIC), although training in their use was indifferent. Antisubmarine weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in World War I, had made no progress.
During the 1920s and 1930s, destroyers were often deployed to areas of diplomatic tension or humanitarian disaster. British and American destroyers were common on the Chinese coast and rivers, even supplying landing parties to protect colonial interests. By World War II, the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, andaircraft had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the early-war fleet destroyers were ill-equipped for combating these new targets. They were fitted with new lightantiaircraft guns,radar, andforward-launched ASW weapons, in addition to their existingdual-purpose guns,depth charges, and torpedoes. Increasing size allowed improved internal arrangement of propulsion machinery withcompartmentation, so ships were less likely to be sunk by a single hit.[7] In most cases torpedo and/or dual-purpose gun armament was reduced to accommodate newanti-air andanti-submarine weapons. By this time the destroyers had become large, multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right. As a result, casualties on destroyers were among the highest. In the US Navy, particularly in World War II, destroyers became known astin cans due to their light armor compared to battleships and cruisers.
The need for large numbers of antisubmarine ships led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized antisubmarine warships calledcorvettes andfrigates by the Royal Navy anddestroyer escorts by the USN. A similar programme was belatedly started by the Japanese (seeMatsu-class destroyer). These ships had the size and displacement of the original TBDs from which the contemporary destroyer had evolved.
Some conventional destroyers completed in the late 1940s and 1950s were built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons, such as thesquid mortar. Examples include the BritishDaring-class, USForrest Sherman-class, and the SovietKotlin-class destroyers.
Some World War II–vintage ships were modernized for antisubmarine warfare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships. Examples include the USFRAM I programme and the BritishType 15 frigates converted from fleet destroyers.
The 21st century destroyers tend to display features such as large, slab sides without complicated corners and crevices to keep theradar cross-section small,vertical launch systems to carry a large number of missiles at high readiness to fire, andhelicopter flight decks andhangars.
French Navy operates twoHorizon-class frigates and eightFREMM Multipurpose frigates of theAquitaine-class variant. The French Navy does not use the term "destroyer" but rather "first-rate frigate" for these ship types, but they are marked with the NATO "D" hull code which places them in the destroyer type, as opposed to "F" for frigate.[44]
The destroyers of theUS Navy'sZumwalt class, pictured here sailing with USS Independence (rear) are the longest and heaviest destroyers currently in service
Egyptian Navy operates theENSTahya Misr. This is one of theAquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.
German Navy operates threeSachsen-class frigates and fourBaden-Württemberg-class frigates. These ships are officially classified as frigates by Germany, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.
Indian Navy operates oneNilgiri class and threeShivalik classs. These ships are officially classified as frigates by India, but are larger and armed withBrahMos supersonic cruise missiles.
Royal Moroccan Navy operates theMohammed VI. This is one of theAquitaine-class variants of the FREMM Multipurpose frigates purchased from France, which is classified as a destroyer by France.
Royal Netherlands Navy operates fourDe Zeven Provinciën-class frigates. These ships are classified as frigates by the Netherlands, but regarded as destroyers internationally due to size and capability.[45]
Royal Norwegian Navy operates fourFridtjof Nansen-class frigates. These ships are subclasses of Spain'sAlvaro de Bazan-class, and classified as frigates, but are regarded as destroyers due to their size and armament.[46]
Romanian Naval Forces operatesMărășești. This ship was classified as a destroyer from 1990 to 2001, when she was reclassified as a frigate. No official reason was given for this and there was no change in armament or capability, thus remaining in the destroyer type.
Spanish Navy operates fiveÁlvaro de Bazán-class frigates. These ships are officially classified as a frigates by Spain, but due to their size and capabilities are regarded internationally as destroyers. They also served as the basis for Australia'sHobart-class destroyers.
Baden-Württemberg, anF125-class frigate of theGerman Navy; currently the biggest frigates worldwide. In size and role they are qualified as destroyers
Brazilian Navy plans to build 7,000-ton destroyers after the delivery of the new frigates, and TKMS presented to the Navy its most modern 7,200-ton MEKO A-400 air defense destroyer, an updated version of the GermanF-125-class frigates. The similarities between the projects and the high rate of commonality between requirements were also crucial for the consortium's victory.[47]
German Navy: Six multi-missionF126 frigates which will have destroyer-size and corresponding capabilities (Length: 163 m, displacement: 10,550 tons)[48]
United States Navy, currently has 19 additionalArleigh Burke destroyers planned or under construction. The new ships will be the upgraded "flight III" version.[52] The United States has also started development of itsDDG(X) next-generation destroyer project.[53] Construction of the first ship is expected to start in 2028.
^Although the RussianKirov class are sometimes classified as battlecruisers due to their displacement, they are described by Russia as large missile cruisers.
^Evans and Peattie, David C. and Mark R. (1997).Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941. Annapolis, Maryland:Naval Institute Press.ISBN978-0-87021-192-8.
^Howe, Christopher (1996).The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.ISBN978-0-226-35485-9.
^Hildebrand, Hans H.; Röhr, Albert & Steinmetz, Hans-Otto (1993).Die Deutschen Kriegsschiffe: Biographien: ein Spiegel der Marinegeschichte von 1815 bis zur Gegenwart (Band 4) [The German Warships: Biographies: A Reflection of Naval History from 1815 to the Present (Vol. 4)] (in German). Ratingen: Mundus Verlag. pp. 17–18.ISBN978-3-7822-0382-1.
^abLyon & Winfield. "10".The Sail and Steam Navy List. pp. 82–3.
^"Under the influence of Fernando Villamil (1845–1898), Spain in 1886 produced the first torpedo boat destroyer." Kern, Robert & Dodge, Meredith:Historical dictionary of modern Spain, 1700–1988. Greenwood Press, 1990, page 361.ISBN0-313-25971-2
^Polmar, Norman; Cavas, Christopher (2009).Navy's Most Wanted™: The Top 10 Book of Admirable Admirals, Sleek Submarines, and Other Naval Oddities. Potomac Books. p. 44.ISBN978-1597976558.
^Cornwell, Edward Lewis (1979).The illustrated history of ships. Crescent Books. p. 150.ISBN0517287951.
^Illustrated Naval and Military Magazine: A monthly journal devoted to all subjects connected with Her Majesty's land and sea forces, 1888, v 9, page 280
^Dahl, E.J. (2001)."Naval innovation: From coal to oil"(PDF).Joint Force Quarterly (Winter 2000–01):50–6.Archived(PDF) from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved14 February 2017.
^TheKönigin Luise was abandoned and scuttled by her crew, but the British patrol later passed through the area she had mined and a cruiser was damaged and abandoned.
^Kemp, Paul (1997).U-boats Destroyed: German Submarine Losses in the World Wars. Naval Institute Press.ISBN9781557508591.
^Brassey's Annual: The Armed Forces Year-book, Praeger Publishers, 1939, p. 276
^Jordan, John & Moulin, Jean (2015).French Destroyers: Torpilleurs d'Escadre & Contre-Torpilleurs 1922–1956. Barnsley, UK: Seaforth Publishing.ISBN978-1-84832-198-4.
Evans, David C.Kaigun: Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887–1941,Mark R. Peattie. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MarylandISBN0-87021-192-7
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Gove, Philip Babock (Editor in Chief).Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged. (2002) Merriam-Webster Inc., Publishers, Massachusetts, US.
Grant, R. Captain.Before Port Arthur in a Destroyer; The Personal Diary of a Japanese Naval Officer. London, John Murray; first and second editions published in 1907.
Howe, Christopher.Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War, The University of Chicago Press,ISBN0-226-35485-7
Jentschura, Hansgeorg.Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945. United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Maryland, 1977.ISBN0-87021-893-X.
Lyon, David,The First Destroyers. Chatham Publishing, 1 & 2 Faulkner's Alley, Cowcross St. London, Great Britain; 1996.ISBN1-55750-271-4.
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