Adeodorant is a substance applied to the body to prevent or maskbody odor caused by bacterial breakdown ofperspiration, for example in thearmpits,groin, orfeet. A subclass of deodorants, calledantiperspirants, prevents sweating itself, typically by blockingsweat glands. Antiperspirants are used on a wider range of body parts, at any place where sweat would be inconvenient or unsafe, since unwanted sweating can interfere with comfort,vision, and grip (due to slipping). Other types of deodorant allow sweating but preventbacterial action on sweat, since human sweat only has a noticeable smell when it is decomposed by bacteria.
The first commercial deodorant,Mum, was introduced and patented in the late nineteenth century by aninventor inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania,Edna Murphey.[1] The product was briefly withdrawn from the market in the US.[1] The modern formulation of the antiperspirant waspatented byJules Montenier on January 28, 1941.[2] This formulation was first found in "Stopette" deodorant spray, whichTime magazine called "the best-selling deodorant of the early 1950s".[3]
Use of deodorant withaluminium compounds has been suspected of being linked to breast cancer, but research has not proven any such link.[4][5]
The human body producesperspiration (sweat) via two types ofsweat gland:eccrine sweat glands which cover much of theskin and produce watery odourless sweat, andapocrine sweat glands in thearmpits andgroin, which produce a more oily "heavy" sweat containing a proportion of wasteproteins,fatty acids andcarbohydrates, that can bemetabolized by bacteria to produce compounds that causebody odor. In addition, thevagina producessecretions which are not a form of sweat but may be undesired and also masked with deodorants.
Human perspiration of all types is largely odorless until its organic components arefermented bybacteria that thrive in hot, humid environments. The human underarm is among the most consistently warm areas on the surface of the human body, andsweat glands readily provide moisture containing a fraction of organic matter, which when excreted, has a vital cooling effect. When adult armpits are washed withalkaline pH soap, the skin loses its protectiveacid mantle (pH 4.5–6), raising the skin pH and disrupting the skin barrier.[6] Many bacteria are adapted to the slightly alkaline environment within the human body, so they can thrive within this elevated pH environment.[7] This makes the skin more than usually susceptible to bacterial colonization.[7] Bacteria on the skin feed on the waste proteins and fatty acids in the sweat from theapocrine glands and on dead skin and hair cells, releasingtrans-3-methyl-2-hexenoic acid in their waste, which is the primary cause of body odor.[8]
Underarm hair wicks the moisture away from the skin and aids in keeping the skin dry enough to prevent or diminish bacterial colonization. The hair is less susceptible to bacterial growth and therefore reduces bacterial odor.[9] The apocrine sweat glands are inactive untilpuberty, which is why body odor often only becomes noticeable at that time.
Deodorant products work in one of two ways – by preventing sweat from occurring, or by allowing it to occur but preventing bacterial activity that decomposes sweat on the skin.[citation needed]
In 1888, the first modern commercial deodorant,Mum, was developed and patented by a U.S.inventor inPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania,Edna Murphey;[1] the small company was bought byBristol-Myers in 1931. In the late 1940s, Helen Barnett Diserens developed an underarm applicator based on the newly inventedball-point pen.[10][11] In 1952, the company began marketing the product under the name Ban Roll-On.[10][11][12] The product was briefly withdrawn from the market in the U.S.,[1] but it is once again available at retailers in the U.S. under the brand Ban.[13] In the UK it is sold under the names Mum Solid and Mum Pump Spray.[1]Chattem acquired the Ban deodorant brand in 1998[14] and subsequently sold it toKao Corporation in 2000.[15]
In 1903, the first commercial antiperspirant was Everdry.[16] The modern formulation of the antiperspirant was patented byJules Montenier on January 28, 1941.[2] This patent addressed the problem of the excessive acidity of aluminum chloride and its excessive irritation of the skin, by combining it with a solublenitrile or a similar compound.[2] This formulation was first found in "Stopette" deodorant spray, whichTime magazine called "the best-selling deodorant of the early 1950s".[3] "Stopette" gained its prominence as the first and long-time sponsor of the game showWhat's My Line?; it was later eclipsed by many other brands once the 1941 patent expired.[citation needed]
Between 1942 and 1957, the market for deodorants increased 600 times to become a $70 million market. Deodorants were originally marketed primarily to women, but by 1957 the market had expanded to male users, and estimates were that 50% of men were using deodorants by that date. The Ban Roll-On product led the market in sales.[17]
In the early 1960s, the firstaerosol antiperspirant in the marketplace wasGillette'sRight Guard, whose brand was later sold toHenkel in 2006.[18] Aerosols were popular because they let the user dispense a spray without coming in contact with the underarm area. By the late 1960s, half of all the antiperspirants sold in the U.S. were aerosols, and continued to grow in all sales to 82% by the early 1970s. However, the late 1970s saw two developments which greatly reduced the popularity of these products. First, in 1977 theU.S. Food and Drug Administration banned the active ingredient used in aerosols, aluminium zirconium chemicals, due to safety concerns over long term inhalation. Second, theU.S. Environmental Protection Agency limited the use ofchlorofluorocarbon (CFC) propellants used in aerosols due to awareness that these gases can contribute to depleting the ozone layer. As the popularity of aerosols slowly decreased, stick antiperspirants became more popular.[citation needed]
In the United States, deodorants are classified and regulated ascosmetics by theU.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)[19] and are designed to eliminate odor. Deodorants are oftenalcohol-based. Alcohol initially stimulates sweating but may also temporarily kill bacteria. Other active ingredients in deodorants includesodium stearate,sodium chloride, andstearyl alcohol. Deodorants can be formulated with other, more persistentantimicrobials such astriclosan that slow bacterial growth or with metalchelant compounds such asEDTA. Deodorants may containperfume fragrances or naturalessential oils intended to mask the odor of perspiration. Some of the first patented deodorants usedzinc oxide, acids,ammonium chloride,sodium bicarbonate, andformaldehyde (which is now known as acarcinogen), and some of these ingredients were messy, irritating to the skin.[20]
Over-the-counter products, often labeled as "natural deodorant crystal", contain the chemicalrock crystalspotassium alum orammonium alum, which prevents bacterial action on sweat. These have gained popularity as an alternative health product, in spite of concerns about possible risks related to aluminum (see below – all alum salts contain aluminum in the form ofaluminum sulphatesalts) and contact dermatitis.[21]
Vaginal deodorant, in the form of sprays,suppositories, and wipes, is often used by women to maskvaginal secretions. Vaginal deodorants can sometimes causedermatitis.[22]
In the United States, deodorants combined with antiperspirant agents are classified asdrugs by the FDA.[19] Antiperspirants attempt to stop or significantly reduce perspiration and thus reduce the moist climate in which bacteria thrive.Aluminium chloride,aluminium chlorohydrate, andaluminium-zirconium compounds, most notablyaluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly are frequently used in antiperspirants. Aluminium chlorohydrate and aluminium-zirconium tetrachlorohydrate gly are the most frequent active ingredients in commercial antiperspirants.[23] Aluminium-based complexes react with theelectrolytes in the sweat to form a gel plug in the duct of the sweat gland. The plugs prevent the gland from excreting liquid and are removed over time by the naturalsloughing of the skin. The metal salts work in another way to prevent sweat from reaching the surface of the skin: the aluminium salts interact with the keratin fibrils in the sweat ducts and form a physical plug that prevents sweat from reaching the skin's surface. Aluminium salts also have a slightastringent effect on the pores; causing them to contract, further preventing sweat from reaching the surface of the skin.[24] The blockage of a large number of sweat glands reduces the amount of sweat produced in the underarms, though this may vary from person to person.Methenamine in the form of cream or spray is effective in the treatment of excessive sweating and attendant odor. Antiperspirants are usually best applied before bed.[25]
Common and historical formulations for deodorants include the following active ingredients:
Deodorants and antiperspirants come in many forms. What is commonly used varies in different countries. In Europe,aerosol sprays are popular, as are cream and roll-on forms. In North America, solid or gel forms are dominant.[citation needed]
After using a deodorant containing zirconium, the skin may develop anallergic, axillarygranuloma response.[28] Antiperspirants withpropylene glycol, when applied to theaxillae, can cause irritation and may promote sensitization to other ingredients in the antiperspirant.[29] Deodorant crystals containing synthetically madepotassium alum were found to be a weakirritant to the skin.[21] Unscented deodorant is available for those with sensitive skin.[citation needed] Frequent use of deodorants was associated with blood concentrations of thesynthetic muskgalaxolide.[30]
Many deodorants and antiperspirants containaluminium in the form ofaluminium salts such asaluminium chlorohydrate.[23]
TheUS Food and Drug Administration, in a 2003 paper discussing deodorant safety, concluded that "despite many investigators looking at this issue, the agency does not find data from topical and inhalation chronic exposure animal and human studies submitted to date sufficient to change the monograph status of aluminum containing antiperspirants", therefore allowing their use and stating they will keep monitoring the scientific literature.[31] Members of theScientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS) of theEuropean Commission concluded similarly in 2015, that "due to the lack of adequate data on dermal penetration to estimate the internal dose of aluminium following cosmetic uses, risk assessment cannot be performed."[32] In the light of new data in 2020 the SCCS considered aluminium compounds safe up to 6.25% in non-spray deodorants or non-spray antiperspirants and 10.60% in spray deodorants or spray antiperspirants.[33]
Common myths and marketing claims for aluminium in deodorants (including aluminum in alum products) include claims:
Of note, the parts of the body which are commonly shaved and also commonly treated with deodorants, such as thearmpits, contain substantial deposits ofsubcutaneous fat. Shaving cuts would be extremely unlikely to penetrate sufficiently beyond the very outer layers of the skin, for much if any product to enter the bloodstream.[4]
A 2014 review of 469 peer-reviewed studies examining the effect of exposure to aluminum products concluded "that health risks posed by exposure to inorganicAl[uminum] depend on its physical and chemical forms and that the response varies with route of administration, magnitude, duration and frequency of exposure. These results support previous conclusions that there is little evidence that exposure to metallic Al, the Al oxides or its salts increases risk forAlzheimer's disease, genetic damage or cancer".[34]
The claim that breast cancer is believed to be linked with deodorant use has been widely circulated and appears to originate from aspam email sent in 1999;[4] however, there is no evidence to support the existence of such a link.[5] The myth circulates in two forms:
It is possible that there has been confusion between sweat glands, and thelymph nodes deep within the armpits which form part of theimmune system and help filter toxins, but if so, there is no evidence at all of such "blocking" of lymph nodes, nor any scientifically plausible route by which this could result from deodorant use.[4]
TheNational Cancer Institute states that "no scientific evidence links the use of these products to the development of breast cancer" and that "no clear evidenceshow[s] that the use of aluminum-containing underarm antiperspirants or cosmetics increases the risk of breast cancer", but also concludes that"[b]ecause studies of antiperspirants and deodorants and breast cancer have provided conflicting results, additional research would be needed to determine whether a relationship exists".[36]
Another constituent of deodorant products that has given cause for concern areparabens, a chemical additive.[37] However parabens do not cause cancer.[38]
The FDA has "acknowledge[d] that small amounts of aluminum can be absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and through the skin", leading to a warning "that people withkidney disease may not be aware that the daily use of antiperspirant drug products containing aluminum may put them at a higher risk because of exposure to aluminum in the product."[31] The agency warns people with kidney dysfunction to consult adoctor before using antiperspirants containing aluminum.[31]
If aerosol deodorant is held close to the skin for long enough, it can cause anaerosol burn—a form offrostbite.[39][40] In controlled tests, spray deodorants have been shown to cause temperature drops of over 60 °C in a short period of time.[39]
Aluminium zirconium tetrachlorohydrex gly, a common antiperspirant, can react with sweat to create yellow stains on clothing.Underarm liners are an antiperspirant alternative that does not leave stains.[41][42]
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link){{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
