N. poeticus.Thomé:Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz (1885)[2] 1. Longitudinal section, 2. Anthers, 3. Stigma, 4. Cross section of ovary
Br ✶ ☿P3+3+CoronaA3+3G(3) Bracteate, Actinomorphic, Bisexual Perianth: 6 tepals in 2 whorls of 3 Stamens: 2 whorls of 3 Ovary: Superior – 3 fused carpels
Narcissus is agenus of predominantly spring floweringperennial plants of the amaryllis family,Amaryllidaceae. Various common names includingdaffodil,[Note 1]narcissus (pluralnarcissi), andjonquil, are used to describe some or all members of the genus.Narcissus has conspicuous flowers with six petal-liketepals surmounted by a cup- or trumpet-shapedcorona. The flowers are generally white andyellow (also orange or pink in garden varieties), with either uniform or contrasting coloured tepals and corona.
Narcissi were well known inancient civilisation, both medicinally and botanically, but were formally described byLinnaeus in hisSpecies Plantarum (1753). The genus is generally considered to have about ten sections with approximately 36 species. The number of species has varied, depending on how they are classified, due to similarity between species andhybridisation. The genus arose some time in the LateOligocene to EarlyMiocene epochs, in theIberian peninsula and adjacent areas of southwest Europe. The exact origin of the nameNarcissus is unknown, but it is often linked to a Greek word (ancient Greek ναρκῶ narkō, "to make numb") and the myth of theyouth of that name who fell in love with his own reflection. In some versions of the story, Narcissus is turned into a flower by the Gods after his death. The English word "daffodil" appears to be derived from "asphodel", with which it was commonly compared.[3][4]
The species are native to meadows and woods in southern Europe and North Africa with acentre of diversity in the Western Mediterranean, particularly theIberian Peninsula. Both wild and cultivated plants have naturalised widely, and were introduced into the Far East prior to the tenth century. Narcissi tend to be long-lived bulbs, which propagate by division, but are also insect-pollinated. Known pests, diseases and disorders include viruses, fungi, the larvae of flies,mites andnematodes. SomeNarcissus species have become extinct, while others are threatened by increasing urbanisation andtourism.
Historical accounts suggest narcissi have been cultivated from the earliest times, but became increasingly popular in Europe after the 16th century and by the late 19th century were an important commercial crop centred primarily in theNetherlands. Today, narcissi are popular as cut flowers and as ornamental plants in private and publicgardens. The long history of breeding has resulted in thousands of differentcultivars. For horticultural purposes, narcissi are classified into divisions, covering a wide range of shapes and colours. Like other members of their family, narcissi produce a number of differentalkaloids, which provide some protection for the plant, but may be poisonous if accidentally ingested. This property has been exploited for medicinal use in traditional healing and has resulted in the production ofgalantamine for the treatment ofAlzheimer's dementia. Long celebrated in art and literature, narcissi are associated with a number of themes in different cultures, ranging from death to good fortune, and as symbols of spring.
The daffodil is the national flower ofWales and the symbol of cancer charities in many countries. The appearance of wild flowers in spring is associated with festivals in many places.
Narcissus is a genus ofperennialherbaceousbulbiferousgeophytes, which die back after flowering to an underground storage bulb. They regrow in the following year from brown-skinned ovoidbulbs with pronounced necks, and reach heights of 5–80 centimetres (2.0–31.5 in) depending on the species. Dwarf species such asN. asturiensis have a maximum height of 5–8 centimetres (2.0–3.1 in), whileNarcissus tazetta may grow as tall as 80 centimetres (31 in).[5][6]
The plants arescapose, having a single central leafless hollow flowerstem (scape). Several green or blue-green, narrow, strap-shaped leaves arise from the bulb. The plant stem usually bears a solitary flower, but occasionally a cluster of flowers (umbel). The flowers, which are usually conspicuous and white or yellow, sometimes both or rarely green, consist of aperianth of three parts. Closest to the stem (proximal) is afloral tube above theovary, then an outer ring composed of sixtepals (undifferentiated sepals and petals), and a central disc to conical shapedcorona. The flowers may hang down (pendant), or be erect. There are sixpollen-bearingstamens surrounding a centralstyle. Theovary is inferior (below the floral parts) consisting of three chambers (trilocular). Thefruit consists of a drycapsule that splits (dehisces) releasing numerous blackseeds.[6]
The bulb lies dormant after the leaves and flower stem die back and has contractileroots that pull it down further into the soil. The flower stem and leaves form in the bulb, to emerge the following season. Most species are dormant from summer to late winter, flowering in the spring, though a few species are autumn flowering.[6]
The pale brown-skinnedovoidtunicatebulbs have a membranous tunic and a corky stem (base or basal) plate from which arise theadventitiousroot hairs in a ring around the edge, which grow up to 40 mm in length. Above the stem plate is the storage organ consisting of bulb scales, surrounding the previous flower stalk and the terminalbud. The scales are of two types, true storage organs and the bases of the foliage leaves. These have a thicker tip and a scar from where the leaf lamina became detached. The innermost leaf scale is semicircular, only partly enveloping the flower stalk (semisheathed). (see Hanks Fig 1.3). The bulb may contain a number of branched bulb units, each with two to three true scales and two to three leaf bases. Each bulb unit has a life of about four years.[6][7]
Once the leaves die back in summer, the roots also wither. After some years, the roots shorten, pulling the bulbs deeper into the ground (contractile roots). The bulbs develop from the inside, pushing the older layers outwards which become brown and dry, forming an outer shell, the tunic or skin. Up to 60 layers have been counted in some wild species. While the plant appears dormant above the ground the flower stalk, which will start to grow in the following spring, develops within the bulb surrounded by two to three deciduous leaves and their sheaths. The flower stem lies in theaxil of the second true leaf.[6]
Stems
The single leaflessplant stem or scape, appearing from early to late spring depending on the species, bears from 1 to 20 blooms.[8] Stem shape depends on the species; some are highly compressed with a visible seam, while others are rounded. The stems are upright and located at the centre of the leaves. In a few species such asN. hedraeanthus the stem is oblique. The stem is hollow in the upper portion but towards the bulb is more solid and filled with a spongy material.[9]
Leaves
Narcissus plants have one to several basalleaves which are linear, ligulate or strap-shaped (long and narrow), sometimeschannelledadaxially tosemiterete, and may (pedicellate) or may not (sessile) have apetiole stalk.[10] The leaves are flat and broad to cylindrical at the base and arise from the bulb.[11] The emerging plant generally has two leaves, but the mature plant usually three, rarely four, and they are covered with acutin-containingcuticle, giving them a waxy appearance. Leaf colour is light green to blue-green. In the mature plant, the leaves extend higher than the flower stem, but in some species, the leaves are low-hanging. The leaf base is encased in a colorless sheath. After flowering, the leaves turn yellow and die back once theseed pod (fruit) is ripe.[6]
Jonquils usually have dark green, round, rush-like leaves.[12]
Theinflorescence is scapose, the singlestem or scape bearing either a solitary flower or forming anumbel with up to 20 blooms.[8] Species bearing a solitary flower include sectionBulbocodium and most of sectionPseudonarcissus.Umbellate species have a fleshyracemoseinflorescence (unbranched, with short floral stalks) with 2 to 15 or 20 flowers, such asN. papyraceus (see illustration, left) andN. tazetta (seeTable I).[13][14] The flower arrangement on the inflorescence may be either with (pedicellate) or without (sessile) floral stalks.
Prior to opening, the flower buds are enveloped and protected in a thin, dry, papery or membranous (scarious)spathe. Thespathe consists of a singularbract that is ribbed, and which remains wrapped around the base of the open flower. As the bud grows, the spathe splits longitudinally.[15][16]Bracteoles are small or absent.[9][15][14][17]
Flowers
Theflowers ofNarcissus arehermaphroditic (bisexual),[18] have three parts (tripartite), and are sometimesfragrant (seeFragrances).[19] The flower symmetry isactinomorphic (radial) to slightly zygomorphic (bilateral) due to declinate-ascendingstamens (curving downwards, then bent up at the tip).Narcissus flowers are characterised by their, usually conspicuous,corona (trumpet).
The three major floral parts (in all species exceptN. cavanillesii in which the corona is virtually absent -Table I: SectionTapeinanthus) are:
(iii) the more distalcorona (paraperigon, paraperigonium).
All three parts may be considered to be components of theperianth (perigon, perigonium). Theperianth arises above the apex of the inferiorovary, its base forming the hypanthialfloral tube.
The floral tube is formed by fusion of the basal segments of the tepals (proximally connate). Its shape is from an inverted cone (obconic) to funnel-shaped (funneliform) or cylindrical, and is surmounted by the more distal corona. Floral tubes can range from long and narrow sectionsApodanthi andJonquilla to rudimentary (N. cavanillesii).[20]
Surrounding the floral tube and corona andreflexed (bent back) from the rest of the perianth are the six spreading tepals or floral leaves, in two whorls which may be distally ascending, reflexed (folded back), or lanceolate. Like manymonocotyledons, the perianth is homochlamydeous, which is undifferentiated into separate calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals), but rather has six tepals. The three outer tepal segments may be consideredsepals, and the three inner segmentspetals. The transition point between the floral tube and the corona is marked by the insertion of the free tepals on the fused perianth.[7]
The corona, or paracorolla, is variously described as bell-shaped (funneliform, trumpet), bowl-shaped (cupular, crateriform, cup-shaped) or disc-shaped with margins that are often frilled, and is free from the stamens. Rarely is the corona a simple callose (hardened, thickened) ring. The corona is formed during floral development as a tubular outgrowth from stamens which fuse into a tubular structure, the anthers becoming reduced. At its base, the fragrances which attract pollinators are formed. All species produce nectar at the top of the ovary.[13] Coronal morphology varies from the tiny pigmented disk ofN. serotinus (seeTable I) or the rudimentary structure inN. cavanillesii to the elongated trumpets of sectionPseudonarcissus (trumpet daffodils, Table I).[10][13][14][7]
While the perianth may point forwards, in some species such asN. cyclamineus it is folded back (reflexed, see illustration, left), while in some other species such asN. bulbocodium (Table I), it is reduced to a few barely visible pointed segments with a prominent corona.
The colour of the perianth is white, yellow or bicoloured, with the exception of the night floweringN. viridiflorus, which is green. In addition, the corona ofN. poeticus has a red crenulate margin (seeTable I).[11] Flower diameter varies from 12 mm (N. bulbocodium) to over 125 mm (N. nobilis=N. pseudonarcissus subsp.nobilis).[20]
The flowers ofNarcissus demonstrate exceptional floral diversity and sexualpolymorphism,[17] primarily by corona size and floral tube length, associated withpollinator groups (see for instance Figs. 1 and 2 in Graham and Barrett[13]). Barrett and Harder (2005) describe three separate floral patterns:
"Daffodil" form
"Paperwhite" form
"Triandrus" form.
The predominant patterns are the 'daffodil' and 'paperwhite' forms, while the "triandrus" form is less common. Each corresponds to a different group of pollinators (SeePollination).[17]
The "daffodil" form, which includes sectionsPseudonarcissus andBulbocodium, has a relatively short, broad or highly funnelform tube (funnel-like), which grades into an elongated corona, which is large and funnelform, forming a broad, cylindrical or trumpet-shaped perianth. SectionPseudonarcissus consists of relatively large flowers with a corolla length of around 50 mm, generally solitary but rarely in inflorescences of 2–4 flowers. They have wide greenish floral tubes with funnel-shaped bright yellow coronas. The six tepals sometimes differ in colour from the corona and may be cream coloured to pale yellow.[18]
The "paperwhite" form, including sectionsJonquilla,Apodanthi andNarcissus, has a relatively long, narrow tube and a short, shallow, flaring corona. The flower is horizontal and fragrant.
The "triandrus" form is seen in only two species,N. albimarginatus (a Moroccan endemic) andN. triandrus. It combines features of both the "daffodil" and "paperwhite" forms, with a well-developed, long, narrow tube and an extended bell-shaped corona of almost equal length. The flowers are pendent.[17]
There are sixstamens in one to two rows (whorls), with the filaments separate from the corona, attached at the throat or base of the tube (epipetalous), often of two separate lengths, straight or declinate-ascending (curving downwards, then upwards). The anthers are basifixed (attached at their base).[10][7]
Theovary is inferior (below the floral parts) andtrilocular (three chambered) and there is apistil with a minutely three lobedstigma and filiform (thread like)style, which is often exserted (extending beyond the tube).[22][7]
Fruit
The fruit consists of dehiscentloculicidalcapsules (splitting between the locules) that areellipsoid tosubglobose (almost spherical) in shape and are papery to leathery in texture.[9]
Seeds
The fruit contains numerous subgloboseseeds which are round and swollen with a hard coat, sometimes with an attachedelaiosome. Thetesta is black[10] and thepericarp dry.[14]
Most species have 12ovules and 36 seeds, although some species such asN. bulbocodium have more, up to a maximum of 60. Seeds take five to six weeks to mature. The seeds of sectionsJonquilla andBulbocodium are wedge-shaped and matte black, while those of other sections are ovate and glossy black. A gust of wind or contact with a passing animal is sufficient todisperse the mature seeds.
Chromosome numbers include 2n=14, 22, 26, with numerousaneuploid andpolyploid derivatives. The basic chromosome number is 7, with the exception ofN. tazetta,N. elegans andN. broussonetii in which it is 10 or 11; this subgenus (Hermione) was in fact characterised by this characteristic. Polyploid species includeN. papyraceus (4x=22) andN. dubius (6x=50).[7]
As with all Amarylidaceae genera,Narcissus contains uniqueisoquinolinealkaloids. The first alkaloid to be identified waslycorine, fromN. pseudonarcissus in 1877. These are considered a protective adaptation and are utilised in the classification of species. Nearly 100 alkaloids have been identified in the genus, about a third of all known Amaryllidaceae alkaloids, although not all species have been tested. Of the nine alkaloidring types identified in the family,Narcissus species most commonly demonstrate the presence of alkaloids from within the Lycorine (lycorine, galanthine, pluviine) andHomolycorine (homolycorine, lycorenine) groups. Hemanthamine, tazettine,narciclasine, montanine andgalantamine alkaloids are also represented. The alkaloid profile of any plant varies with time, location, and developmental stage.[23]Narcissus also containfructans and low molecular weightglucomannan in the leaves and plant stems.
The genusNarcissus was well known to theancient Greeks and Romans. InGreek literatureTheophrastus[25] andDioscorides[26] describedνάρκισσος, probably referring toN. poeticus, although the exact species mentioned in classical literature cannot be accurately established.Pliny the Elder later introduced theLatin formnarcissus.[27][28][29][30] These early writers were as much interested in the plant's possible medicinal properties as they were in its botanical features and their accounts remained influential until at least theRenaissance (see alsoAntiquity). Mediaeval and Renaissance writers includeAlbert Magnus andWilliam Turner, but it remained toLinnaeus to formally describe and nameNarcissus as a genus in hisSpecies Plantarum (1753) at which time there were six known species.[1][31]
Various authors have adopted either narrow (e.g.Haworth,[41][42]Salisbury[43]) or wide (e.g.Herbert,[44]Spach[45] ) interpretations of the genus.[46] The narrow view treated many of the species as separate genera.[47] Over time, the wider view prevailed with a major monograph on the genus being published byBaker (1875).[48] One of the more controversial genera wasTapeinanthus,[49][47] but today it is included inNarcissus.[21]
The infrageneric phylogeny ofNarcissus still remains relatively unsettled,[23] the taxonomy having proved complex and difficult to resolve,[14][18][21] due to the diversity of the wild species, the ease with which naturalhybridization occurs, and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation.[23][52] Consequently, the number of accepted species has varied widely.[52]
De Candolle, in the first systematic taxonomy ofNarcissus, arranged the species into named groups, and those names have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name as their authority.[37][38] The situation was confused by the inclusion of many unknown or garden varieties, and it was not until the work of Baker that the wild species were all grouped as sections under one genus,Narcissus.[48]
A common classification system has been that of Fernandes[53][54][55] based oncytology, as modified by Blanchard (1990)[56][57] andMathew (2002).[21] Another is that of Meyer (1966).[58] Fernandes proposed twosubgenera based on basal chromosome numbers, and then subdivided these into tensections as did Blanchard.[57]
Other authors (e.g. Webb[14][47]) prioritised morphology over genetics, abandoning subgenera, although Blanchard's system has been one of the most influential. While infrageneric groupings withinNarcissus have been relatively constant, their status (genera, subgenera, sections, subsections, series, species) has not.[21][23] The most cited system is that of theRoyal Horticultural Society (RHS) which simply lists ten sections. Three of these aremonotypic (contain only one species), while two others contain only two species. Most species are placed in sectionPseudonarcissus.[59][60] Many of these subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for daffodil types,e.g. Trumpet Daffodils, Tazettas, Pheasant's Eyes, Hoop Petticoats, Jonquils.[21]
The mosthierarchical system is that of Mathew, illustrated here -
Thephylogenetic analysis of Graham and Barrett (2004) supported the infrageneric division ofNarcissus into twoclades corresponding to Fernandes' subgenera, but did not support monophyly of all sections.[13] A later extended analysis byRønstedet al. (2008) with additional taxa confirmed this pattern.[61]
A large molecular analysis byZonneveld (2008) sought to reduce some of theparaphyly identified by Graham and Barrett. This led to a revision of the sectional structure.[52][60][62]While Graham and Barrett (2004)[13] had determined that subgenusHermione was monophyletic, Santos-Gallyet al. (2011)[60] did not. If two species excluded in the former study are removed from the analysis, the studies are in agreement, the species in question instead forming a clade with subgenusNarcissus. Some so-called nothosections have been proposed, to accommodate natural ('ancient') hybrids (nothospecies).[62]
Estimates of the number of species inNarcissus have varied widely, from anywhere between 16 and almost 160,[52][56] even in the modern era. Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753, by 1784 there were fourteen[63] by 1819 sixteen,[64] and by 1831Adrian Haworth had described 150 species.[41]
Much of the variation lies in the definition ofspecies. Thus, a very wide view of each species, such as Webb's[14] results in few species, while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes[53] results in a larger number.[21] Another factor is the status ofhybrids, with a distinction between "ancient hybrids" and "recent hybrids". The term "ancient hybrid" refers to hybrids found growing over a large area, and therefore now considered as separate species, while "recent hybrid" refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents, with a more restricted range.[52]
Fernandes (1951) originally accepted 22 species,[55] Webb (1980) 27.[14] By 1968, Fernandes had 63 species,[53] Blanchard (1990) 65 species,[56] and Erhardt (1993) 66.[65] In 2006 theRoyal Horticultural Society's (RHS)International Daffodil Register and Classified List[59][66][67] listed 87 species, while Zonneveld's genetic study (2008) resulted in only 36.[52] As of September 2014[update], theWorld Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 52 species, along with at least 60 hybrids,[68] while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list.[69]
Within theNarcisseae,Narcissus (western Mediterranean) diverged fromSternbergia (Eurasia) some time in theLate Oligocene toEarly Miocene eras, around 29.3–18.1Ma. Later, the genus divided into the two subgenera (Hermione andNarcissus) between 27.4 and 16.1 Ma. The divisions between the sections ofHermione then took place during the Miocene period 19.9–7.8 Ma.[60]Narcissus appears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula, southern France and northwestern Italy. SubgenusHermione in turn arose in the southwestern Mediterranean and Northwest Africa.[60]
The derivation of the Latinnarcissus[70] is from Greekνάρκισσοςnarkissos.[71][72] According toPlutarchnarkissos has been connected because of the plant's narcotic properties, withnarkē "numbness";[71][73] it may also be connected with hell.[74] On the other hand, its etymology is considered to be clearlyPre-Greek byBeekes.[75]
It is frequently linked to the myth ofNarcissus, who became so obsessed with his own reflection in water that he drowned and the narcissus plant sprang from where he died. There is no evidence for the flower being named after Narcissus.Narcissus poeticus, which grows in Greece, has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating.[76]Pliny wrote that the plant was named for its fragrance (ναρκάωnarkao, "I grow numb" ), rather than Narcissus.[23][27][77][78][79] Furthermore, there were accounts of narcissi growing long before the story of Narcissus appeared (seeGreek culture).[74][80][Note 2] It has also been suggested that narcissi bending over streams represent the youth admiring his reflection.[81] Linnaeus used the Latin name "narcissus" for the plant but was preceded by others such asMatthias de l'Obel (1591)[82] andClusius (1576).[83] The name Narcissus was not uncommon for men in Roman times.
The plural form of the common name "narcissus" has been the cause of some confusion. Dictionaries list "narcissi", "narcissuses" and "narcissus".[76][84][85] However, texts on usage such as Garner[86] and Fowler[87] state that "narcissi" is the preferred form. The common name narcissus should not be capitalised.
The name "daffodil" is derived from "affodell", a variant ofasphodel.[88] The narcissus was frequently referred to as the asphodel[77] (seeAntiquity). Asphodel in turn appears to come from the Greek "asphodelos" (Ancient Greek:ἀσφόδελος).[77][89][90][91] The reason for the introduction of the initial "d" is not known.[92] From at least the 16th century, "daffadown dilly" and "daffydowndilly" have appeared as alternative names.[76] Other names include "Lent lily".[93][94]
While the Amaryllidaceae are not native to North America,Narcissus grows well in USDAhardiness zones 3B through 10, which encompass most of the United States and Canada.[98]
N. poeticus growing in Međulići, nearGacko, Bosnia and Herzegovina
However, unlike the above examples, most species have very restrictedendemic ranges[60][100] which may overlap resulting in natural hybrids.[52] For instance in the vicinity of thePortuguese city ofPorto where bothN. pseudonarcissus andN. triandrus occur there are found various intersections of the two species while in a small area along part of the Portuguese Mondego river are found intersectional hybrids betweenN. scaberulus andN. triandrus.
Thebiogeography demonstrates aphylogenetic association, for instance subgenusHermione having a lowland distribution, but subgenusNarcissus sectionApodanthi beingmontane and restricted to Morocco, Spain and Portugal. The remaining sections within subgenusNarcissus include both lowland and mountain habitats.[60] SectionPseudonarcissus, although widely naturalised, is endemic to theBaetic Ranges of the southeastern Iberian Peninsula.[18]
ThePseudonarcissus group in their natural habitat prefers humid situations such as stream margins, springs, wet pastures, clearings of forests or shrublands with humid soils, and moist hillsides. These habitats tend to be discontinuous in the Mediterranean mountains, producing discrete isolated populations.[18] InGermany, which has relatively little limestone,Narcissus pseudonarcissus grows in small groups on open mountain meadows or in mixed forests offir,beech,oak,alder,ash andbirch trees with well-drained soil.
Narcissus are long-lived perennial geophytes with winter-growing and summer-dormant bulbs[18] that are mainly synanthous (leaves and flowers appearing at the same time).[6] While most species flower in late winter to spring, five species are autumn flowering (N. broussonetii,N. cavanillesii,N. elegans,N. serotinus,N. viridiflorus).[13] By contrast, these species are hysteranthous (leaves appear after flowering).[6]
Flower longevity varies by species and conditions, ranging from 5–20 days.[101] After flowering leaf and rootsenescence sets in, and the plant appears to be 'dormant' until the next spring, conserving moisture. However, the dormant period is also one of considerable activity within the bulbprimordia. It is also a period during which the plant bulb may be susceptible to predators (see§ Pests and diseases, below). Like many bulb plants fromtemperate regions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. Early spring growth confers a number of advantages, including relative lack of competition for pollinators, and lack ofdeciduous shading.[6] The exception to requiring cold temperatures to initiate flowering isN. tazetta.[7]
Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division, producing clumps.[18] Narcissus specieshybridise readily, although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental relationship.[23]
'Daffodil' form. Pollinated by bees seekingpollen fromanthers within the corona. The broad perianth allows bees (Bombus,Anthophora,Andrena) to completely enter the flower in their search for nectar and/or pollen. In this type, the stigma lies in the mouth of the corona, extending beyond the six anthers, whose singlewhorl lies well within the corona. The bees come into contact with the stigma before their legs, thorax and abdomen contact the anthers, and thisapproach herkogamy causes cross pollination.
'Paperwhite' form. These are adapted to long-tonguedLepidoptera, particularlysphingid moths such asMacroglossum,Pieridae andNymphalidae, but also some long-tongued bees, andflies, all of which are primarily seekingnectar. The narrow tube admits only the insect'sproboscis, while the short corona serves as a funnel guiding the tip of the proboscis into the mouth of the perianth tube. The stigma is placed either in the mouth of the tube, just above two whorls of three anthers, or hidden well below the anthers. The pollinators then carry pollen on their probosci or faces. The long-tongued bees cannot reach the nectar at the tube base and so collect just pollen.
'Triandrus' form. Pollinated by long-tongued solitary bees (Anthophora,Bombus), which forage for both pollen and nectar. The large corona allows the bees to crawl into the perianth but then the narrow tube prevents further progress, causing them to probe deeply for nectar. The pendant flowers prevent pollination by Lepidoptera. InN. albimarginatus there may be either a long stigma with short and mid-length anthers or a short stigma and long anthers (dimorphism). InN. triandrus there are three patterns of sexual organs (trimophism) but all have long upper anthers but vary in stigma position and the length of the lower anthers.[13][17]
Diseases ofNarcissus are of concern because of the economic consequences of losses in commercial cultivation. Pests include viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as arthropods and gastropods. For control of pests, seeCommercial uses.
Of these viruses the most serious and prevalent are NDV, NYSV and NWSV.[113][104] NDV is associated withchlorotic leaf striping inN. tazetta.[109] Infection with NYSV produces light or grayish-green, or yellow stripes or mottles on the upper two-thirds of the leaf, which may be roughened or twisted. The flowers which may be smaller than usual may also be streaked or blotched. NWSV produces greenish-purple streaking on the leaves and stem turning white to yellow, and premature senescence reducing bulb size and yield.[103] These viruses are primarily diseases of commercial nurseries. The growth inhibition caused by viral infection can cause substantial economic damage.[117][118][119]
More problematic for non-commercial plants is thefungus,Fusarium oxysporum f. sp.narcissi, which causes basal rot (rotting of the bulbs and yellowing of the leaves). This is the most serious disease ofNarcissus. Since the fungus can remain in the soil for many years it is necessary to remove infected plants immediately, and to avoid planting further narcissi at that spot for a further five years. Not all species and cultivars are equally susceptible. Relatively resistant forms includeN. triandrus,N. tazetta andN. jonquilla.[120][113][121][122]
Another fungus which attacks the bulbs, causing narcissus smoulder, isBotrytis narcissicola (Sclerotinia narcissicola) and other species ofBotrytis, includingBotrytis cinerea,[123][124] particularly if improperly stored. Copper sulfate is used to combat the disease, and infected bulbs are burned. Blue mould rot of bulbs may be caused by infection with species ofPenicillium, if they have become damaged either through mechanical injury or infestation by mites (see below).[125] Species ofRhizopus (e.g.Rhizopus stolonifer,Rhizopus nigricans) cause bulb soft rot[118][126] andSclerotinia bulborum, black slime disease.[127] A combination of bothPeyronellaea curtisii (Stagonosporopsis curtisii) andBotrytis narcissicola causes neck rot in the bulbs.[113]
Other fungi affect the remainder of the plant. AnotherBotrytis fungus,Botrytis polyblastis (Sclerotinia polyblastis) causes brown spots on the flower buds and stems (narcissus fire), especially in damp weather and is a threat to the cut flower industry.[129][130]Ramularia vallisumbrosae is a leaf spot fungus found in warmer climates, causing narcissus white mould disease.[131]Peyronellaea curtisii, the Narcissus leaf scorch, also affects the leaves[117][118][132][133][134] as does itssynanamorph,Phoma narcissi (leaf tip blight).[135][113]Aecidium narcissi causesrust lesions on leaves and stems.[127]
Arthropods that areNarcissus pests includeinsects such as three species offly that have larvae that attack the plants, the narcissus bulb flyMerodon equestris, and two species ofhoverflies, the lesser bulb fliesEumerus tuberculatus[136] andEumerus strigatus. The flies lay their eggs at the end of June in the ground around the narcissi, a single female fly being able to lay up to fifty eggs. The hatchinglarvae then burrow through the soil towards the bulbs and consume their interiors. They then overwinter in the empty bulb shell, emerging in April topupate in the soil, from which the adult fly emerges in May.[117][137] The larvae of somemoths such asKorscheltellus lupulina (the common swift moth) attackNarcissus bulbs.[138][117]
Planted bulbs are susceptible tonematodes, the most serious of which isDitylenchus dipsaci (Narcissus eelworm), the main cause of basal plate disease[140] in which the leaves turn yellow and become misshapen. Infested bulbs have to be destroyed; where infestation is heavy avoiding planting further narcissi for another five years.[117][141][142][143] Other nematodes includeAphelenchoides subtenuis, which penetrates the roots causing basal plate disease[140][144] andPratylenchus penetrans (lesion nematode) the main cause of root rot in narcissi.[145][113] Other nematodes such as thelongodorids (Longidorus spp. or needle nematodes andXiphinema spp. or dagger nematodes) and the stubby-root nematodes ortrichodorids (Paratrichodorus spp. andTrichodorus spp.) can also act as vectors of virus diseases, such as TBRV and TomRSV, in addition to causing stunting of the roots.[102][144]
Narcissi,John Parkinson,Paradisus Terrestris 1629. (8. Great Double Yellow Spanish Daffodil)
Of all the flowering plants, the bulbous have been the most popular for cultivation.[149] Of these, narcissi are one of the most important spring flowering bulb plants in the world.[150][10]Indigenous in Europe, the wild populations of the parent species had been known sinceantiquity. Narcissi have been cultivated from at least as early as the sixteenth century in theNetherlands, when large numbers of bulbs where imported from the field, particularlyNarcissus hispanicus, which soon became nearly extinct in its native habitat of France and Spain, though still found in the southern part of that country.[151] The only large-scale production at that time related to the double narcissus "Van Sion" and cultivars ofN. tazetta imported in 1557.[152]
Cultivation is also documented in Britain at this time,[153][154][155] although contemporary accounts show it was well known as a favourite garden and wild flower long before that and was used in makinggarlands.[156] This was a period when the development of exotic formal gardens and parks was becoming popular, particularly in what is known as the "Oriental period" (1560–1620). In hisHortus Medicus (1588), the first catalogue of a German garden's plants,[157]Joachim Camerarius the Younger states that nine different types of daffodils were represented in his garden inNuremberg.[158] After his death in 1598, his plants were moved byBasilius Besler to the gardens they had designed atWillibaldsburg, the bishop's palace atEichstätt, Upper Bavaria. That garden is described in Besler'sHortus Eystettensis (1613) by which time there were 43 different types present.[159] Another German source at this time wasPeter Lauremberg who gives an account of the species known to him and their cultivation in hisApparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis (1632).[160]
WhileShakespeare's daffodil is the wild or true English daffodil (N. pseudonarcissus),[156] many other species were introduced, some of which escaped and naturalised, particularlyN. biflorus (a hybrid) inDevon and the west of England.[161]Gerard, in his extensive discussion of daffodils, both wild and cultivated ("bastard daffodils") described twenty four species in London gardens (1597),[161][162][163] ("we have them all and every one of them in our London gardens, in great abundance", p. 114).
In the early seventeenth century,Parkinson helped to ensure the popularity of the daffodil as a cultivated plant[161] by describing a hundred different varieties in hisParadisus Terrestris (1629),[164] and introducing the great double yellow Spanish daffodil (Pseudonarcissus aureus Hispanicus flore pleno or Parkinson's Daffodil, see illustration) to England.[165]
I thinke none ever had this kind before myselfe nor did I myself ever see it before the year 1618 for it is of mine own raising and flowering first in my own garden
Although not achieving the sensationalism oftulips, daffodils and narcissi have been much celebrated in art and literature (see§ Art, below). The largest demand for narcissi bulbs were large trumpet daffodils,N. poeticus andN. bulbocodium, andIstanbul became important in the shipping of bulbs to western Europe. By the earlybaroque period both tulips and narcissi were an important component of the spring garden. By 1739 a Dutch nursery catalogue listed 50 different varieties. In 1757Hill gave an account of the history and cultivation of the daffodil in his edited version of the works ofThomas Hale, writing "The garden does not afford, in its Kind, a prettier plant than this; nor do we know one that has been so early, or so honorably mention'd by all Kinds of Writers" (see illustration).[166] Interest grew further when varieties that could be grown indoors became available, primarily the bunch flowered (multiple flower heads)N. tazetta (Polyanthus Narcissus).[149] However interest varied by country. Maddock (1792) does not include narcissi in his list of the eight most important cultivated flowering plants in England,[167] whereas in the Netherlands van Kampen (1760) stated thatN. tazetta (Narcisse à bouquet) is the fifth most important – "Le Narcisse à bouquet est la premiere fleur, après les Jacinthes, les Tulipes les Renoncules, et les Anemones, (dont nous avons déja parlé,) qui merite nôtre attention".[168][169] SimilarlyPhilip Miller, in hisGardeners Dictionary (1731–1768) refers to cultivation in Holland, Flanders and France, but not England,[170] because it was too difficult, a similar observation was made bySir James Justice at this time.[171] However, for most species ofNarcissus Lauremberg'sdictumMagna cura non indigent Narcissi was much cited.[172]
Narcissi became an importanthorticultural crop in Western Europe in the latter part of the nineteenth century, beginning in England between 1835 and 1855 and the end of the century in the Netherlands.[7] By the beginning of the twentieth century 50 million bulbs ofN. Tazetta "Paperwhite" were being exported annually from the Netherlands to the United States. With the production oftriploids such as "Golden Spur", in the late nineteenth century, and in the beginning of the twentieth century, tetraploids like "King Alfred" (1899), the industry was well established, with trumpet daffodils dominating the market.[151] TheRoyal Horticultural Society has been an important factor in promoting narcissi, holding the first Daffodil Conference in 1884,[173] while theDaffodil Society, the first organisation dedicated to the cultivation of narcissi was founded in Birmingham in 1898. Other countries followed and theAmerican Daffodil Society which was founded in 1954 publishesThe Daffodil Journal quarterly, a leading trade publication.
Daffodil trumpets
Narcissi are now popular asornamental plants for gardens, parks and ascut flowers, providing colour from the end of winter to the beginning of summer intemperate regions. They are one of the most popular spring flowers[174] and one of the major ornamental spring flowering bulb crops, being produced both for their bulbs and cut flowers, though cultivation of private and public spaces is greater than the area of commercial production.[23] Over a century of breeding has resulted in thousands of varieties andcultivars being available from both general and specialist suppliers.[13] They are normally sold as dry bulbs to be planted in late summer and autumn. They are one of the most economically important ornamental plants.[13][23]Plant breeders have developed some daffodils with double, triple, or ambiguously multiple rows and layers of segments.[8] Many of the breeding programs have concentrated on the corona (trumpet or cup), in terms of its length, shape, and colour, and the surrounding perianth[21] or even as in varieties derived fromN. poeticus a very reduced form.
While some wild narcissi are specific in terms of their ecological requirements, most garden varieties are relatively tolerant of soil conditions,[175] however very wet soils and clay soils may benefit from the addition of sand to improve drainage.[176] The optimum soil is a neutral to slightly acidpH of 6.5–7.0.[175]
Bulbs offered for sale are referred to as either 'round' or 'double nose'. Round bulbs are circular in cross section and produce a single flower stem, while double nose bulbs have more than one bulb stem attached at the base and produce two or more flower stems, but bulbs with more than two stems are unusual.[177] Planted narcissi bulbs produce daughter bulbs in the axil of the bulb scales, leading to the dying off the exterior scales.[175] To prevent planted bulbs forming more and more small bulbs, they can be dug up every 5–7 years, and the daughters separated and replanted separately, provided that a piece of the basal plate, where the rootlets are formed, is preserved. For daffodils to flower at the end of the winter or early spring, bulbs are planted inautumn (September–November). This plant does well in ordinary soil but flourishes best in rich soil. Daffodils like the sun but also accept partial shade exposure.[citation needed]
Narcissi are well suited for planting under small thickets of trees, where they can be grouped as 6–12 bulbs.[178] They also grow well in perennial borders,[175] especially in association withday lilies which begin to form their leaves as the narcissi flowers are fading.[176] A number of wild species and hybrids such as "Dutch Master", "Golden Harvest", "Carlton", "Kings Court" and "Yellow Sun" naturalise well in lawns,[175] but it is important not to mow the lawn till the leaves start to fade, since they are essential for nourishing the bulb for the next flowering season.[175] BlueScilla andMuscari which also naturalise well in lawns and flower at the same time as narcissus, make an attractive contrast to the yellow flowers of the latter. Unliketulips, narcissi bulbs are not attractive to rodents and are sometimes planted near tree roots in orchards to protect them.[179]
The commonest form of commercial propagation is bytwin-scaling, in which the bulbs are cut into many small pieces but with the two scales still connected by a small fragment of the basal plate. The fragments are disinfected and placed in nutrient media. Some 25–35 new plants can be produced from a single bulb after four years.Micropropagation methods are not used for commercial production but are used for establishing commercial stock.[180][142]
For commercial use, varieties with a minimum stem length of 30 centimetres (12 in) are sought, making them ideal for cut flowers. Florists require blooms that only open when they reach the retail outlet. For garden plants the objectives are to continually expand the colour palette and to produce hardy forms, and there is a particular demand for miniature varieties. The cultivars so produced tend to be larger and more robust than the wild types.[6] The main species used in breeding areN. bulbocodium,N. cyclamineus,N. jonquilla,N. poeticus,N. pseudonarcissus,N. serotinus andN. tazetta.[181]
Narcissus pseudonarcissus gave rise to trumpetcultivars with coloured tepals and corona, while its subspeciesN. pseudonarcissus subsp.bicolor was used for white tepaled varieties. To produce large cupped varieties,N. pseudonarcissus wascrossed withN. poeticus, and to produce small cupped varieties back crossed withN. poeticus. Multiheaded varieties, often called "Poetaz" are mainly hybrids ofN. poeticus andN. tazetta.[6]
For horticultural purposes, allNarcissus cultivars are split into 13 divisions as first described by Kington (1998),[182] forthe Royal Horticultural Society (RHS),[8] based partly upon flower form (shape and length of corona), number of flowers per stem, flowering period and partly upon genetic background. Division 13, which includes wild daffodils, is the exception to this scheme.[183] The classification is a useful tool for planning planting. Most commercially available narcissi come from Divisions 1 (Trumpet), 2 (Large cupped) and 8 (Tazetta).
Growers register new daffodil cultivars by name and colour with the Royal Horticultural Society, which is the international registration authority for the genus.[66] TheirInternational Daffodil Register is regularly updated with supplements available online[66] and is searchable.[21][67] The most recent supplement (2014) is the sixth (the fifth was published in 2012).[184] More than 27,000 names were registered as of 2008,[184] and the number has continued to grow. Registered daffodils are given a division number andcolour code[185] such as 5 W-W ("Thalia").[186] In horticultural usage it is common to also find an unofficial Division 14: Miniatures, which although drawn from the other 13 divisions, have their miniature size in common.[187] Over 140 varieties have gained theRoyal Horticultural Society'sAward of Garden Merit (SeeList of Award of Garden Merit narcissus).
Daffodil breeding has introduced a wide range of colours, in both the outer perianth tepal segment and the inner corona. In the registry, daffodils are coded by the colours of each of these two parts. Thus "Geranium", Tazetta (Division 8) as illustrated here with a white outer perianth and orange corona is classified as8 W-O.
AllNarcissus species contain thealkaloid poisonlycorine, mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves.[188] Members of the monocot subfamilyAmaryllidoideae present a unique type of alkaloids, the norbelladine alkaloids, which are4-methylcatechol derivatives combined withtyrosine. They are responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species. Over 200 different chemical structures of these compounds are known, of which 79 or more are known fromNarcissus alone.[189]
The toxic effects of ingestingNarcissus products for both humans and animals (such as cattle, goats, pigs, and cats) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts. Ingestion ofN. pseudonarcissus orN. jonquilla is followed bysalivation, acute abdominal pains,nausea,vomiting, anddiarrhea, then neurological and cardiac events, includingtrembling,convulsions, andparalysis. Death may result if large quantities are consumed.
The toxicity ofNarcissus varies with species,N. poeticus being more toxic thanN. pseudonarcissus, for instance. The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies, for instance, there is a five times higher concentration of alkaloid in the stem ofN. papyraceus than in the bulb, making it dangerous to herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb, and is part of the plant's defence mechanisms. The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites.[23] The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants, including roses, rice, and cabbages, inhibiting growth.[23] For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter.[190]
Many cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken forleeks oronions and cooked and eaten. Recovery is usually complete in a few hours without any specific intervention. In more severe cases involving ingestion of large quantities of bulbs,activated carbon, salts andlaxatives may be required, and for severe symptoms intravenousatropine andemetics orstomach pumping may be indicated. However, ingestion of large quantities accidentally is unusual because of a strong unpleasant taste. When narcissi were compared with a number of other plants not normally consumed by animals, narcissi were the most repellent, specificallyN. pseudonarcissus. Consequently, narcissus alkaloids have been used as repellents and may also discourage fungi, molds, and bacteria.[23]
On 1 May 2009, a number of schoolchildren fell ill at Gorseland Primary School inMartlesham Heath, Suffolk, England, after a daffodil bulb was added to soup during a cookery class.[188]
One of the most commondermatitis problems for flower pickers, packers, florists, and gardeners, "daffodil itch", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, anderythema in the hands, often accompanied bysubungualhyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure tocalcium oxalate,chelidonic acid or alkaloids such aslycorine in the sap, either due to a direct irritant effect or an allergic reaction.[191][192] It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis more readily than others.N. pseudonarcissus and thecultivars "Actaea", "Camparelle", "Gloriosa", "Grande Monarque", "Ornatus", "Princeps" and "Scilly White" are known to do so.[23][193]
If bulb extracts come into contact with wounds, both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may result. The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting fromN. bulbocodium.[23]
Despite the lethal potential ofNarcissus alkaloids, they have been used for centuries astraditional medicines for a variety of complaints, including cancer. Plants thought to beN. poeticus andN. tazetta are described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer.[190][194][195][196] In theClassical Greek worldHippocrates (ca. B.C. 460–370) recommended a pessary prepared from narcissus oil foruterine tumors, a practice continued byPedanius Dioscorides (ca. A.D. 40–90) andSoranus of Ephesus (A.D. 98–138) in the first and second centuries A.D., while theRomanPliny the Elder (A.D. 23–79), advocatedtopical use.[190] The bulbs ofN. poeticus contain theantineoplastic agent narciclasine. This usage is also found in laterArabian, North African, Central American andChinese medicine during theMiddle Ages.[190] In ChinaN. tazetta var. chinensis was grown as an ornamental plant but the bulbs were applied topically to tumors in traditional folk medicine. These bulbs contain pretazettine, an active antitumor compound.[23][196][197]
Narcissus products have received a variety of other uses. The Roman physicianAulus Cornelius Celsus listed narcissus root inDe Medicina amongmedical herbs, described asemollient, erodent, and "powerful to disperse whatever has collected in any part of the body". N. tazetta bulbs were used in Turkey as a remedy for abscesses in the belief they wereantiphlogistic andanalgesic. Other uses include the application to wounds, strains, painful joints, and various local ailments as anointment called 'Narcissimum'. Powdered flowers have also been used medically, as anemetic, adecongestant and for the relief ofdysentery, in the form of a syrup orinfusion. The French used the flowers as anantispasmodic, the Arabs the oil forbaldness and also anaphrodisiac. In the eighteenth century the Irishherbal ofJohn K'Eogh recommended pounding the roots in honey for use on burns, bruises,dislocations andfreckles, and for drawing out thorns and splinters.N. tazetta bulbs have also been used forcontraception, while the flowers have been recommended forhysteria andepilepsy.[23] In the traditional Japanese medicine ofkampo, wounds were treated with narcissus root andwheat flour paste;[198] the plant, however, does not appear in the modernkampo herb list.
There is also a long history of the use ofNarcissus as astimulant and to inducetrance like states andhallucinations.Sophocles referred to the narcissus as the "Chaplet of the infernal Gods",[74] a statement frequently wrongly attributed toSocrates (seeAntiquity).[23]
It is likely that the traditional use of narcissi for the treatment of cancer was due to the presence of isocarbostyril constituents such asnarciclasine,pancratistatin and their congeners.N. poeticus contains about 0.12g of narciclasine per kg of fresh bulbs.[190]
Acetylcholine esterase inhibition has attracted the most interest as a possible therapeutic intervention, with activity varying by a thousandfold between species, and the greatest activity seen in those that contain galantamine or epinorgalanthamine.[61]
Therodent repellant properties ofNarcissus alkaloids have been utilised in horticulture to protect more vulnerable bulbs.[201]
Of all the alkaloids, only galantamine has made it to therapeutic use in humans, as the druggalantamine forAlzheimer's disease. Galantamine is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor which crosses theblood brain barrier and is active within thecentral nervous system.[23] Daffodils are grown commercially nearBrecon in Powys, Wales, to produce galantamine.[202]
TheNetherlands, which is the most important source of flower bulbs worldwide is also a major centre of narcissus production. Of 16,700 hectares (ha) under cultivation for flower bulbs, narcissi account for about 1,800 hectares. In the 1990s narcissus bulb production was at 260 million, sixth in size aftertulips,gladioli,irises,crocuses andlilies and in 2012 it was ranked third.[150] About two-thirds of the area under cultivation is dedicated to about 20 of the most popular varieties. In the 2009/2010 season, 470 cultivars were produced on 1578 ha. By far the largest area cultivated is for the miniature'Tête-à-Tête', followed at some distance by 'Carlton'. The largest production cultivars are shown in Table II.[203]
Table II: Area under cultivation in the Netherlands, by cultivar
Cultivar
Division
Colour
Area (ha)
"Tête-à-Tête"
6: Cyclamineus
Yellow
663
"Carlton"
2: Large cup
Yellow
54
"Bridal Crown"
4: Double
White–Yellow
51
"Dutch Master"
1: Trumpet
Yellow
47
"Jetfire"
6: Cyclamineus
Yellow–Orange
42
"Ice Follies"
2: Large cup
White
36
"Carlton" and "Ice Follies" (Division 2: Large cup) have a long history of cultivation, together with "Dutch Master" and "Golden Harvest" (1: yellow). "Carlton" and "Golden Harvest" were introduced in 1927, and "Ice Follies" in 1953. "Carlton", with over 9 billion bulbs (350 000 tons), is among the more numerous individual plants produced in the world.[204] The other major areas of production are theUnited States,[150]Israel which exported 25 millionN. tazetta cultivar bulbs in 2003,[203] and theUnited Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom a total of 4100 ha were planted with bulbs, of which 3800 ha were Narcissi, the UK's most important bulb crop, much of which is for export,[205] making this the largest global production centre, about half of the total production area. While some of the production is for forcing, most is for dry bulb production. Bulb production and forcing occurs in the East, while production in the south west is mainly for outdoor flower production.[206] Thefarm gate value was estimated at £10m in 2007.[207]
Production of both bulbs and cut flowers takes place in open fields in beds or ridges, often in the same field, allowing adaptation to changing market conditions. Narcissi grow best in mild maritime climates. Compared to the United Kingdom, the harsher winters in the Netherlands require covering the fields with straw for protection. Areas with higher rainfall and temperatures are more susceptible todiseases that attack crops. Production is based on a 1 (UK) or 2 (Netherlands) year cycle. Optimal soilpH is 6.0–7.5. Prior to planting disinfection by hot water takes place, such as immersion at 44.4 °C for three hours.[142]
Bulbs are harvested for market in the summer, sorted, stored for 2–3 weeks, and then further disinfected by a hot (43.5 °C) bath. This eliminates infestations by narcissus fly and nematodes. The bulbs are then dried at a high temperature, and then stored at 15.5 °C.[6] The initiation of new flower development in the bulb takes place in late spring before the bulbs are lifted, and is completed by mid summer while the bulbs are in storage. The optimal temperature for initiation is 20 °C followed by cooling to 13 °C.[7]
Traditionally, sales took place in the daffodil fields prior to harvesting the bulbs, but today sales are handled by Marketing Boards although still before harvesting. In the Netherlands there are special exhibition gardens for major buyers to view flowers and order bulbs, some larger ones may have more than a thousand narcissus varieties on display. While individuals can visit these gardens they cannot buy bulbs atretail, which are only available atwholesale, usually at a minimum of severalhundredweight. The most famous display is atKeukenhof, although only about 100 narcissus varieties are on display there.
There is also a market for forced blooms, both as cut flowers and potted flowers through the winter from Christmas to Easter, the long season requiring special preparation by growers.
Forcut flowers, bulbs larger than 12 cm in size are preferred. To bloom in December, bulbs are harvested in June to July, dried, stored for four days at 34 °C, two weeks at 30 and two weeks at 17–20 °C and then placed in cold storage for precooling at 9 degrees for about 15–16 weeks. The bulbs are then planted in light compost in crates in agreenhouse for forcing at 13 °C–15 °C and the blooms appear in 19–30 days.[6][142]
For potted flowers a lower temperature is used for precooling (5 °C for 15 weeks), followed by 16 °C–18 °C in a greenhouse. For later blooming (mid- and late-forcing), bulbs are harvested in July to August and the higher temperatures are omitted, being stored a 17–20 °C after harvesting and placed in cold storage at 9 °C in September for 17–18 (cut flowers) or 14–16 (potted flowers) weeks. The bulbs can then be planted in cold frames, and then forced in a greenhouse according to requirements.[142]N. tazetta and its cultivars are an exception to this rule, requiring no cold period. Often harvested in October, bulbs are lifted in May and dried and heated to 30 °C for three weeks, then stored at 25 °C for 12 weeks and planted. Flowering can be delayed by storing at 5 °C–10 °C.[113]
In the West the narcissus is perceived as a symbol of vanity, in the East as a symbol of wealth and good fortune (see§ Eastern cultures, below), while inPersian literature, the narcissus is a symbol of beautiful eyes.
In western countries the daffodil is also associated with spring festivals such asLent and its successorEaster. In Germany the wild narcissus,N. pseudonarcissus, is known as theOsterglocke or "Easter bell." In the United Kingdom the daffodil is sometimes referred to as the Lenten lily.[93][94][Note 4]
Although prized as an ornamental flower, some people consider narcissi unlucky, because they hang their heads implying misfortune.[23] White narcissi, such asN triandrus "Thalia", are especially associated with death, and have been called grave flowers.[208][209] In Ancient Greece narcissi were planted near tombs, andRobert Herrick describes them as portents of death, an association which also appears in the myth ofPersephone and theunderworld (see§ Art, below).
The narcissus appears in twoGraeco-Romanmyths, that of the youthNarcissus who was turned into the flower of that name, and of the GoddessPersephonesnatched into theUnderworld by the godHades while picking the flowers. The narcissus is considered sacred to both Hades and Persephone,[215] and grows along the banks of the riverStyx in the underworld.[209]
The Greek poetStasinos mentioned them in theCypria amongst the flowers of Cyprus.[216] The legend of Persephone comes to us mainly in the seventh century BCHomeric HymnTo Demeter,[217] where the author describes the narcissus, and its role as a lure to trap the young Persephone. The flower, she recounts to her mother was the last flower she reached for before being seized.
Middle Minoan painting of narcissus blossoms on a tripod fromCrete,Greece.
Other Greek authors making reference to the narcissus includeSophocles andPlutarch. Sophocles, inOedipus at Colonus utilises narcissus in a symbolic manner, implying fertility,[218] allying it with the cults ofDemeter and her daughterKore (Persephone),[219] and by extension, a symbol of death.[220]Jebb comments that it isthe flower of imminent death with its fragrance being narcotic, emphasised by its pale white colour. Just as Persephone reaching for the flower heralded her doom, the youth Narcissus gazing at his own reflection portended his own death.[219] Plutarch refers to this in hisSymposiacs as numbing the nerves causing a heaviness in the limbs.[221] He refers to Sophocles' "crown of the great Goddesses", which is the source of the English phrase "Chaplet of the infernal Gods" incorrectly attributed toSocrates.[74]
A passage byMoschus, describes fragrant narcissi.[222][223][224]Homer in hisOdyssey[225][226][227][228] described the underworld as havingElysian meadows carpeted with flowers, thought to be narcissus, as described byTheophrastus.[77][229][Note 5] A similar account is provided byLucian describing the flowers in the underworld.[230][231][232] The myth of the youth Narcissus is also taken up byPausanias. He believed that the myth of Persephone long antedated that of Narcissus, and hence discounted the idea the flower was named after the youth.[80]
Virgil, the first knownRoman writer to refer to the narcissus, does so in several places, for instance twice in theGeorgics.[233] Virgil refers to the cup shaped corona of the narcissus flower, allegedly containing the tears of the self-loving youthNarcissus.[234]Milton makes a similar analogy "And Daffodillies fill their Cups with Tears".[235] Virgil also mentions narcissi three times in theEclogues.[236][237]
The poetOvid also dealt with the mythology of the narcissus. In hisMetamorphoses, he recounts the story of the youth Narcissus who, after his death, is turned into the flower,[238][239] and it is also mentioned in Book 5 of his poemFasti.[240][241] This theme of metamorphosis was broader than justNarcissus; for instance seecrocus,laurel andhyacinth.[242]
I wandered lonely as a Cloud That floats on high o'er Vales and Hills, When all at once I saw a crowd A host of dancing Daffodils; Along the Lake, beneath the trees, Ten thousand dancing in the breeze.
The waves beside them danced, but they Outdid the sparkling waves in glee: – A poet could not but be gay In such a laughing company: I gaz'd – and gaz'd – but little thought What wealth the shew to me had brought:
For oft when on my couch I lie In vacant or in pensive mood, They flash upon that inward eye Which is the bliss of solitude, And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the Daffodils.
Although there is no clear evidence that the flower's name derives directly from the Greek myth, this link between the flower and the myth became firmly part of western culture. The narcissus or daffodil is the most loved of all English plants,[156] and appears frequently in English literature. Many English writers have referred to the cultural and symbolic importance ofNarcissus[244][245][246][247]). No flower has received more poetic description except therose and thelily, with poems by authors fromJohn Gower,Shakespeare, Milton (seeRoman culture, above),Wordsworth,Shelley andKeats. Frequently the poems deal with self-love derived from Ovid's account.[248][249] Gower's reference to the yellow flower of the legend has been assumed to be the daffodil orNarcissus,[250] though as with all references in the older literature to the flower that sprang from the youth's death, there is room for some debate as to the exact species of flower indicated, some preferringCrocus.[251] Spenser announces the coming of the Daffodil inAprill of hisShepheardes Calender (1579).[252]
More recentlyA. E. Housman, using one of the daffodil's more symbolic names (seeSymbols), wroteThe Lent Lily inA Shropshire Lad, describing the traditional Easter death of the daffodil.[261]
InBlack Narcissus,Rumer Godden describes the disorientation of English nuns in the IndianHimalayas, and gives the plant name an unexpected twist, alluding both tonarcissism and the effect of the perfumeNarcisse Noir (Caron) on others. The novel was later adapted into the1947 British film of the same name. The narcissus also appears in German literature such as that ofPaul Gerhardt.[262]
In the visual arts, narcissi are depicted in three different contexts, mythological (Narcissus, Persephone), floral art, or landscapes. The Narcissus story has been popular with painters and the youth is frequently depicted with flowers to indicate this association.[76][242] The Persephone theme is also typified by Waterhouse in hisNarcissus, the floralmotif byvan Scorel and the landscape byVan Gogh'sUndergrowth.
InChinese cultureNarcissus tazetta subsp.chinensis (Chinese sacred lilies), which can be grown indoors, is widely used as an ornamental plant.[266][267] It was probably introduced to China by Arab traders travelling theSilk Road prior to theSong dynasty for medicinal use.[52][266][267] Spring-flowering, they became associated withChinese New Year, signifying good fortune, prosperity and good luck[268] and there are many legends in Chinese culture associated withNarcissus.[269][270][271] In contrast to the West, narcissi have not played a significant part inChinese Garden art,[272] however,Zhao Mengjian in theSouthern Song dynasty was noted for his portrayal of narcissi.[273][274] Narcissus bulb carving and cultivation has become an art akin to Japanesebonsai. The Japanese novelNarcissu contains many references to the narcissus, where the main characters set out for the famed narcissus fields onAwaji Island.[275][276]
The word "daffodil" has beenused widely in popular culture, from Dutch cars (DAF Daffodil) to films (Daffodils) to slurs against homosexuals and cross-dressers (as in the filmJ. Edgar, when Hoover's mother explains why real-life cross-dresser Barton Pinkus[288] was called "Daffy" (short for "Daffodil" and the equivalent of apansy[289]), and admonishes, "I'd rather have a dead son than a daffodil for a son".[290][291][292][293][294]
In some areas where narcissi are prevalent, their blooming in spring is celebrated in festivals. For instance, the slopes aroundMontreux, Switzerland and its associatedriviera come alive with blooms each May (May Snow) at the annual Narcissi Festival.[295] Festivals are also held in many other countries.
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