The foreignethnonym variation "Croats" of thenative name "Hrvati" derives fromMedieval LatinCroāt, itself a derivation ofNorth-West Slavic*Xərwate, byliquid metathesis from Common Slavic period*Xorvat, from proposedProto-Slavic*Xъrvátъ which possibly comes from the 3rd-centuryScytho-Sarmatian form attested in theTanais Tablets asΧοροάθος (Khoroáthos, alternate forms compriseKhoróatos andKhoroúathos).[58] The origin of the ethnonym is uncertain, but most probably is fromProto-Ossetian /Alanian *xurvæt- or *xurvāt-, in the meaning of "one who guards" ("guardian, protector").[59] The earliest preserved mentions of the ethnonym in stone inscriptions and written documents in the territory of Croatia are dated to the 8th-9th century (e.g.Dux Croatorum onBranimir inscription andDux Chroatorum onCharter of Duke Trpimir),[60] while in native Croatian language the earliest writing is from theBaška tablet (c. 1100), which inGlagolitic script reads:zvъnъmirъ kralъ xrъvatъskъ ("Zvonimir, king of Croats").[61]
Archaeological evidence shows population continuity in coastalDalmatia andIstria. In contrast, much of theDinaric hinterland and appears to have been depopulated, as virtually all hilltop settlements, fromNoricum toDardania, were abandoned and few appear destroyed in the early 7th century. Although the dating of the earliest Slavic settlements was disputed, recent archaeological data established that the migration and settlement of the Slavs/Croats have been in late 6th and early 7th century.[63][64][65][66][67]
The range of Slavic ceramics of thePrague-Penkovka culture marked in black, all known ethnonyms of Croats are within this area. Presumable migration routes of Croats are indicated by arrows, per V.V. Sedov (1979).
Much uncertainty revolves around the exact circumstances of their appearance given the scarcity of literary sources during the 7th and 8th centuryMiddle Ages. Traditionally, scholarship has placed the arrival of theWhite Croats fromGreat/White Croatia in Eastern Europe in the early 7th century, primarily on the basis of the laterByzantine documentDe Administrando Imperio. As such, the arrival of the Croats was seen as part of main wave or a second wave of Slavic migrations, which took over Dalmatia fromAvar hegemony. However, as early as the 1970s, scholars questioned the reliability ofPorphyrogenitus' work, written as it was in the 10th century. Rather than being an accurate historical account,De Administrando Imperio more accurately reflects the political situation during the 10th century. It mainly served as Byzantine propaganda praising EmperorHeraclius for repopulating theBalkans (previously devastated by theAvars,Sclaveni andAntes) with Croats, who were seen by the Byzantines as tributary peoples living on what had always been 'Roman land'.[68]
Scholars have hypothesized the name Croat (Hrvat) may beIranian, thus suggesting that the Croatians were possibly aSarmatian tribe from thePontic region who were part of a larger movement at the same time that the Slavs were moving toward theAdriatic. The major basis for this connection was the perceived similarity betweenHrvat andinscriptions from theTanais dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, mentioning the nameKhoro(u)athos. Similar arguments have been made for an allegedGothic-Croat link. Whilst there is possible evidence of population continuity between Gothic and Croatian times in parts of Dalmatia, the idea of a Gothic origin of Croats was more rooted in 20th centuryUstaše political aspirations than historical reality.[69]
Other, distinct polities and ethno-political groups existed around the Croat duchy. These included theGuduscans (based in Liburnia),Pagania (between the Cetina andNeretva River),Zachlumia (between Neretva andDubrovnik),Bosnia, andSerbia in other eastern parts of ex-Roman province of "Dalmatia".[70] Also prominent in the territory of future Croatia was the polity of PrinceLjudevit who ruled the territories between theDrava andSava rivers ("Pannonia Inferior"), centred from his fort atSisak. Although Duke Liutevid and his people are commonly seen as a "Pannonian Croats", he is, due to the lack of "evidence that they had a sense of Croat identity" referred to asdux Pannoniae Inferioris, or simply a Slav, by contemporary sources.[71][72] A closer reading of theDAI suggests that Constantine VII's consideration about the ethnic origin and identity of the population of Lower Pannonia,Pagania,Zachlumia and other principalities is based on tenth century political rule and does not indicate ethnicity,[73][74][75][76][77][78][79] and although both Croats and Serbs could have been a small military elite which managed to organize other already settled and more numerous Slavs,[80][81][82] it is possible that Narentines, Zachlumians and others also arrived as Croats or with Croatian tribal alliance.[83][84][85]
The Croats became the dominant local power in northern Dalmatia, absorbing Liburnia and expanding their name by conquest and prestige. In the south, while having periods of independence, the Naretines merged with Croats later under control of Croatian Kings.[86] With such expansion, Croatia became the dominant power and absorbed other polities between Frankish,Bulgarian and Byzantine empire. Although theChronicle of the Priest of Duklja has been dismissed as an unreliable record, the mentioned "Red Croatia" suggests that Croatian clans and families might have settled as far south asDuklja/Zeta.[87] According to Martin Dimnik writing forThe New Cambridge Medieval History, "at the beginning of the eleventh century the Croats lived in two more or less clearly defined regions" of the "Croatian lands" which "were now divided into three districts" including Slavonia/Pannonian Croatia (between rivers Sava and Drava) on one side and Croatia/Dalmatian littoral (betweenGulf of Kvarner and rivers Vrbas and Neretva) and Bosnia (aroundriver Bosna) on other side, and that "Croats, along with Serbs, also lived in Bosnia which at times came under the control of Croatian kings".[88]: 266–276
The lands which constitute modern Croatia fell under three major geographic-politic zones during the Middle Ages, which were influenced by powerful neighbor Empires – notably the Byzantines, the Avars and laterMagyars,Franks andBulgars. Each vied for control of the Northwest Balkan regions. Two independent Slavic dukedoms emerged sometime during the 9th century: theDuchy of Croatia andPrincipality of Lower Pannonia.
Having been under Avar control, lower Pannonia became a march of theCarolingian Empire around 800. Aided byVojnomir in 796, the first named Slavic Duke of Pannonia, the Franks wrested control of the region from the Avars before totally destroying the Avar realm in 803. After the death ofCharlemagne in 814, Frankish influence decreased on the region, allowing PrinceLjudevit Posavski to raise a rebellion in 819.[89] TheFrankishmargraves sent armies in 820, 821 and 822, but each time they failed to crush the rebels.[89] Aided by Borna the Guduscan, the Franks eventually defeated Ljudevit, who withdrew his forces to the Serbs and conquered them, according to the Frankish Annals.[citation needed]
For much of the subsequent period, Savia was probably directly ruled by the CarinthianDuke Arnulf, the future East Frankish King and Emperor. However, Frankish control was far from smooth. TheRoyal Frankish Annals mention several Bulgar raids, driving up the Sava and Drava rivers, as a result of a border dispute with the Franks, from 827. By a peace treaty in 845, the Franks were confirmed as rulers overSlavonia, whilstSrijem remained under Bulgarian clientage. Later, the expanding power ofGreat Moravia also threatened Frankish control of the region. In an effort to halt their influence, the Franks sought alliance with the Magyars, and elevated the local Slavic leaderBraslav in 892, as a more independent Duke over lower Pannonia.[citation needed]
In 896, his rule stretched fromVienna andBudapest to the southern Croat duchies, and included almost the whole of ex-Roman Pannonian provinces. He probably diedc. 900 fighting against his former allies, the Magyars.[89] The subsequent history of Savia again becomes murky, and historians are not sure who controlled Savia during much of the 10th century. However, it is likely that the rulerTomislav, the first crowned King, was able to exert much control over Savia and adjacent areas during his reign. It is at this time that sources first refer to a "Pannonian Croatia", appearing in the 10th century Byzantine workDe Administrando Imperio.[89]
TheDalmatian Croats were recorded to have been subject to the Kingdom of Italy underLothair I, since 828. The Croatian PrinceMislav (835–845) built up a formidable navy, and in 839 signed a peace treaty withPietro Tradonico,doge of Venice. The Venetians soon proceeded to battle with the independent Slavic pirates of thePagania region, but failed to defeat them. The Bulgarian kingBoris I (called by theByzantine Empire Archont of Bulgaria after he made Christianity the official religion of Bulgaria) also waged a lengthy war against the Dalmatian Croats, trying to expand his state to theAdriatic.[citation needed]
The Croatian PrinceTrpimir I (845–864) succeeded Mislav. In 854, there was a great battle between Trpimir's forces and the Bulgars. Neither side emerged victorious, and the outcome was the exchange of gifts and the establishment of peace. Trpimir I managed to consolidate power over Dalmatia and much of the inland regions towardsPannonia, while instituting counties as a way of controlling his subordinates (an idea he picked up from the Franks). The first known written mention of the Croats, dates from 4 March 852, instatute by Trpimir. Trpimir is remembered as the initiator of theTrpimirović dynasty, that ruled in Croatia, with interruptions, from 845 until 1091. After his death, an uprising was raised by a powerful nobleman fromKnin –Domagoj, and his sonZdeslav was exiled with his brothers, Petar andMuncimir toConstantinople.[90]
Facing a number of naval threats bySaracens and Byzantine Empire, the Croatian Prince Domagoj (864–876) built up the Croatian navy again and helped the coalition of emperorLouis II and the Byzantine toconquer Bari in 871. During Domagoj's reignpiracy was a common practice, and he forced the Venetians to start paying tribute for sailing near the eastern Adriatic coast. After Domagoj's death, Venetian chronicles named him "The worst duke of Slavs", whilePope John VIII referred to Domagoj in letters as "Famous duke". Domagoj's son, of unknown name, ruled shortly between 876 and 878 with his brothers. They continued the rebellion, attacked the western Istrian towns in 876, but were subsequently defeated by the Venetian navy. Their ground forces defeated the Pannonian dukeKocelj (861–874) who was suzerain to the Franks, and thereby shed the Frankish vassal status. Wars of Domagoj and his son liberated Dalmatian Croats from supreme Franks rule. Zdeslav deposed him in 878 with the help of the Byzantines. He acknowledged the supreme rule ofByzantine EmperorBasil I. In 879, thePope asked for help from prince Zdeslav for an armed escort for his delegates across southern Dalmatia andZahumlje,[citation needed] but on early May 879, Zdeslav was killed near Knin in an uprising led byBranimir, a relative of Domagoj, instigated by the Pope, fearing Byzantine power.[citation needed]
Branimir's (879–892) own actions were approved from theHoly See to bring the Croats further away from the influence ofByzantium and closer to Rome. Duke Branimir wrote toPope John VIII affirming this split from Byzantine and commitment to theRoman Papacy. During the solemn divine service inSt. Peter's church inRome in 879, John VIII] gave his blessing to the duke and the Croatian people, about which he informed Branimir in his letters, in which Branimir was recognized as the Duke of the Croats (Dux Chroatorum).[91] During his reign, Croatia retained its sovereignty from both theHoly Roman Empire andByzantine rule, and became a fully recognized state.[92][93] After Branimir's death, PrinceMuncimir (892–910), Zdeslav's brother, took control of Dalmatia and ruled it independently of both Rome and Byzantium asdivino munere Croatorum dux (with God's help, duke of Croats). In Dalmatia, dukeTomislav (910–928) succeeded Muncimir. Tomislav successfully repelled Magyar mounted invasions of theArpads, expelled them over theSava River, and united (western) Pannonian and Dalmatian Croats into one state.[94][95][96]
Tomislav (910–928) became king of Croatia by 925. The chief piece of evidence that Tomislav was crowned king comes in the form of a letter dated 925, surviving only in 16th-century copies, fromPope John X calling Tomislavrex Chroatorum. According toDe Administrando Imperio, Tomislav's army and navy could have consisted approximately 100,000infantry units, 60,000 cavaliers, and 80 larger (sagina) and 100 smallerwarships (condura), but generally isn't taken as credible.[97] According to thepalaeographic analysis of the original manuscript ofDe Administrando Imperio, an estimation of the number of inhabitants in medieval Croatia between 440 and 880 thousand people, and military numbers of Franks and Byzantines – the Croatian military force was most probably composed of 20,000–100,000 infantrymen, and 3,000–24,000 horsemen organized in 60allagions.[98][99] The Croatian Kingdom as an ally of Byzantine Empire was in conflict with the risingBulgarian Empire ruled by TsarSimeon I. In 923, due to a deal of Pope John X and a Patriarch of Constantinopole, the sovereignty of Byzantinecoastal cities in Dalmatia came under Tomislav's Governancy. The war escalated on 27 May 927, in thebattle of the Bosnian Highlands, after Serbs were conquered and some fled to the Croatian Kingdom. There Croats under leadership of their king Tomislav completely defeated the Bulgarian army led by military commanderAlogobotur, and stopped Simeon's extension westwards.[100][101][102] The central town in the Duvno field was namedTomislavgrad ("Tomislav's town") in his honour in the 20th century.
Tomislav was succeeded byTrpimir II (928–935), andKrešimir I (935–945), this period, on the whole, however, is obscure.Miroslav (945–949) was killed by his banPribina during an internal power struggle, losing part of islands and coastal cities.Krešimir II (949–969) kept particularly good relations with the Dalmatian cities, while his sonStjepan Držislav (969–997) established better relations with the Byzantine Empire and received a formal authority over Dalmatian cities. His three sons,Svetoslav (997–1000),Krešimir III (1000–1030) andGojslav (1000–1020), opened a violent contest for the throne, weakening the state and further losing control. Krešimir III and his brother Gojslav co-ruled from 1000 until 1020, and attempted to restore control over lost Dalmatian cities now under Venetian control. Krešimir was succeeded by his sonStjepan I (1030–1058), who continued his ambitions of spreading rule over the coastal cities, and during whose rule was established the diocese of Knin between 1040 and 1050 which bishop had the nominal title of "Croatian bishop" (Latin:episcopus Chroatensis).[103][104]
Krešimir IV (1058–1074) managed to get the Byzantine Empire to confirm him as the supreme ruler of the Dalmatian cities.[105] Croatia under Krešimir IV was composed of twelve counties and was slightly larger than in Tomislav's time, and included the closest southern Dalmatian duchy of Pagania.[106] From the outset, he continued the policies of his father, but was immediately commanded byPope Nicholas II first in 1059 and then in 1060 to further reform the Croatian church in accordance with theRoman rite. This was especially significant to the papacy in the aftermath of theGreat Schism of 1054.[107]
He was in conflict with dukes ofIstria, while historical recordsAnnales Carinthiæ andChronica Hungarorum note he invadedCarinthia to aid Hungary in war during 1079/83, but this is disputed. Unlike Petar Krešimir IV, he was also an ally of theNormans, with whom he joined in wars against Byzantium. He married in 1063Helen of Hungary, the daughter of KingBela I of the HungarianÁrpád dynasty, and the sister of the future KingLadislaus I. As King Zvonimir died in 1089 in unknown circumstances, with no direct heir to succeed him,Stjepan II (r. 1089–1091) last of the main Trpimirović line came to the throne but reigned for two years.[112]
After his death civil war and unrest broke out shortly afterward as northern nobles decided Ladislaus I for the Croatian King. In 1093, southern nobles elected a new ruler, KingPetar Snačić (r. 1093–1097), who managed to unify the Kingdom around his capital ofKnin. His army resisted repelling Hungarian assaults, and restored Croatian rule up to the riverSava. He reassembled his forces in Croatia and advanced onGvozd Mountain, where he met the main Hungarian army led by KingColoman I of Hungary. In 1097, in theBattle of Gvozd Mountain, the last native king Peter was killed and the Croats were decisively defeated (because of this, the mountain was this time renamed toPetrova Gora, "Peter's Mountain", but identified with the wrong mountain). In 1102, Coloman returned to the Kingdom of Croatia in force, and negotiated with the Croatian feudal lords resulting in joining of Hungarian and Croatian crowns (with the crown of Dalmatia held separate from that of Croatia).[113]
According toThe New Cambridge Medieval History, "at the beginning of the eleventh century the Croats lived in two more or less clearly defined regions" of the "Croatian lands" which "were now divided into three districts" including Slavonia/Pannonian Croatia (between rivers Sava and Drava) on one side and Croatia/Dalmatian littoral (betweenGulf of Kvarner and rivers Vrbas and Neretva) and Bosnia (aroundriver Bosna) on other side.[88]: 271–276
Pacta Conventa, is a historical document by which Croatia agreed to enter a personal union with Hungary. Although the validity of the document itself is disputed, Croatia did keep considerable autonomy.
In the 11th and 12th centuries "the Croats were never unified under a strong central government. They lived in different areas - Pannonian Croatia, Dalmatian Croatia, Bosnia - which were at times ruled by indigenous kings but more frequently controlled by agents of Byzantium, Venice and Hungary. Even during periods of relatively strong centralized government, local lords frequently enjoyed an almost autonomous status".[88]: 271–276
In the union with Hungary, institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained through theSabor (an assembly of Croatian nobles) and the ban (viceroy). In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles.[114] Coloman retained the institution of the Sabor and relieved the Croatians of taxes on their land. Coloman's successors continued to crown themselves as Kings of Croatia separately inBiograd na Moru.[115] The Hungarian king also introduced a variant of thefeudal system. Largefiefs were granted to individuals who would defend them against outside incursions thereby creating a system for the defence of the entire state. However, by enabling the nobility to seize more economic and military power, the kingdom itself lost influence to the powerful noble families. In Croatia theŠubić were one of the oldest Croatian noble families and would become particularly influential and important, ruling the area betweenZrmanja and theKrka rivers. The local noble family fromKrk island (who later took the surnameFrankopan) is often considered the second most important medieval family, as ruled over northern Adriatic and is responsible for the adoption of one of oldest Europeanstatutes,Law codex of Vinodol (1288). Both families gave many native bans of Croatia. Other powerful families wereNelipić fromDalmatian Zagora (14th–15th centuries);Kačić who ruled overPagania and were famous for piracy and wars against Venice (12th–13th centuries);Kurjaković family, a branch of the old Croatian nobleGusić family fromKrbava (14th–16th centuries);Babonić who ruled from westernKupa to easternVrbas andBosna rivers, and were bans of Slavonia (13th–14th centuries);Iločki family who ruled over Slavonian stronghold-cities, and in the 15th century rose to power. During this period, theKnights Templar and theKnights Hospitaller also acquired considerable property and assets in Croatia.
In the second half of the 13th century, during theÁrpád andAnjou dynasty struggle, the Šubić family became hugely powerful underPaul I Šubić of Bribir, who was the longest Croatian Ban (1274–1312), conquering Bosnia and declaring himself "Lord of all of Bosnia" (1299–1312). He appointed his brotherMladen I Šubić as Ban of Bosnia (1299–1304), and helpedCharles I from House of Anjou to be the King of Hungary. After his death in 1312, his sonMladen II Šubić was the Ban of Bosnia (1304–1322) and Ban of Croatia (1312–1322). The kings from House of Anjou intended to strengthen the kingdom by uniting their power and control, but to do so they had to diminish the power of the higher nobility. Charles I had already tried to crash the aristocratic privileges, intention finished by his sonLouis the Great (1342–1382), relying on the lower nobility and towns. Both kings ruled without the Parliament, and inner nobility struggles only helped them in their intentions. This led to Mladen's defeat at thebattle of Bliska in 1322 by a coalition of several Croatian noblemen and Dalmatian coastal towns with support of the King himself, in exchange of Šubić's castle ofOstrovica forZrin Castle in Central Croatia (thus this branch was namedZrinski) in 1347. Eventually, the Babonić and Nelipić families also succumbed to the king's offensive against nobility, but with the increasing process of power centralization, Louis managed to force Venice by theTreaty of Zadar in 1358 to give up their possessions in Dalmatia. When King Louis died without successor, the question of succession remained open. The kingdom once again entered the time of internal unrest. Besides King Louis's daughterMary,Charles III of Naples was the closest king male relative with claims to the throne. In February 1386, two months after his coronation, he was assassinated by order of the queenElizabeth of Bosnia. His supporters, bansJohn of Palisna,John Horvat and Stjepan Lacković planned a rebellion, and managed to capture and imprison Elizabeth and Mary. By orders of John of Palisna, Elizabeth was strangled. In retaliation, Magyars crowned Mary's husbandSigismund of Luxembourg.[citation needed]
Croatia in personal union with Hungary andOttoman expansion in the region in 1500
King Sigismund's army was catastrophically defeated at theBattle of Nicopolis (1396) as theOttoman invasion was getting closer to the borders of the Hungarian-Croatian kingdom. Without news about the king after the battle, the then ruling Croatian banStjepan Lacković and nobles invited Charles III's sonLadislaus of Naples to be the new king.[citation needed] This resulted in theBloody Sabor of Križevci in 1397, loss of interest in the crown by Ladislaus and selling of Dalmatia to Venice in 1403, and spreading of Croatian names to the north, with those of Slavonia to the east. The dynastic struggle didn't end, and with the Ottoman invasion on Bosnia the first short raids began in Croatian territory, defended only by local nobles.[citation needed]
TheBattle of Mohács (1526) and the death of KingLouis II ended the Hungarian-Croatian union. In 1526, the Hungarian parliament elected two separate kingsJános Szapolyai andFerdinand I Habsburg, but the choice of the Croatian saborat Cetin prevailed on the side of Ferdinand I, as they elected him as the new king of Croatia on 1 January 1527,[116] uniting both lands under Habsburg rule. In return they were promised the historic rights, freedoms, laws and defence of Croatian Kingdom.[citation needed]
However, the Hungarian-Croatian Kingdom was not enough well prepared and organized and the Ottoman Empire expanded further in the 16th century to include most of Slavonia, western Bosnia andLika. For the sake of stopping the Ottoman conquering and possible assault on the capital of Vienna, the large areas of Croatia and Slavonia (even Hungary and Romania) bordering the Ottoman Empire were organized as aMilitary Frontier which was ruled directly from Vienna military headquarters.[117] The invasion caused migration of Croats, and the area which became deserted was subsequently settled bySerbs,Vlachs,Germans and others. The negative effects offeudalism escalated in 1573 when the peasants in northern Croatia and Sloveniarebelled against their feudal lords due to various injustices. After the fall ofBihać fort in 1592, only small areas of Croatia remained unrecovered. The remaining 16,800 square kilometres (6,487 sq mi) were referred to as thereliquiae reliquiarum of the once great Croatian kingdom.[118]
Croats stopped the Ottoman advance in Croatia at thebattle of Sisak in 1593, 100 years after the defeat at Krbava field, and the shortLong Turkish War ended with thePeace of Zsitvatorok in 1606, after which Croatian classes tried unsuccessfully to have their territory on the Military Frontier restored to rule by the Croatian Ban, managing only to restore a small area of lost territory but failed to regain large parts of Croatian Kingdom (present-day westernBosnia and Herzegovina), as the present-day border between the two countries is a remnant of this outcome.[citation needed]
In the first half of the 17th century, Croats fought in theThirty Years' War on the side ofHoly Roman Empire, mostly as light cavalry under command of imperial generalissimoAlbrecht von Wallenstein. Croatian Ban,Juraj V Zrinski, also fought in the war, but died in a military camp nearBratislava,Slovakia, as he was poisoned by von Wallenstein after a verbal duel. His son, future ban and captain-general of Croatia,Nikola Zrinski, participated during the closing stages of the war.
Peter Zrinyi and Ferenc Frangepán in the Wiener-Neustadt Prison byViktor Madarász.
In 1664, the Austrian imperial army was victorious against the Turks, but EmperorLeopold failed to capitalize on the success when he signed thePeace of Vasvár in which Croatia and Hungary were prevented from regaining territory lost to the Ottoman Empire. This caused unrest among the Croatian and Hungarian nobility which plotted against the emperor. Nikola Zrinski participated in launching the conspiracy which later came to be known as theMagnate conspiracy, but he soon died, and the rebellion was continued by his brother, Croatian banPetar Zrinski,Fran Krsto Frankopan andFerenc Wesselényi. Petar Zrinski, along the conspirators, went on a wide secret diplomatic negotiations with a number of nations, includingLouis XIV of France, thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth,Sweden, theRepublic of Venice and even theOttoman Empire, to free Croatia from the Habsburg sovereignty.[citation needed]
Imperial spies uncovered the conspiracy and on 30 April 1671 executed four esteemed Croatian and Hungarian noblemen involved in it, including Zrinski and Frankopan inWiener Neustadt. The large estates of two most powerful Croatian noble houses were confiscated and their families relocated, soon after extinguished. Between 1670 and the revolution of 1848, there would be only 2 bans of Croatian nationality. The period from 1670 to the Croatian cultural revival in the 19th century was Croatia's political Dark Age. Meanwhile, with the victories over Turks, Habsburgs all the more insistent they spent centralization and germanization, new regained lands in liberated Slavonia started giving to foreign families as feudal goods, at the expense of domestic element. Because of this the Croatian Sabor was losing its significance, and the nobility less attended it, yet went only to the one in Hungary.[citation needed]
The CroatianSabor (Parliament) in 1848, by Dragutin Weingärtner
In the 18th century, Croatia was one of the crown lands that supported EmperorCharles'sPragmatic Sanction of 1713 and supported EmpressMaria Theresa in theWar of the Austrian Succession of 1741–48. Subsequently, the empress made significant contributions to Croatian matters, by making several changes in the feudal and tax system, administrative control of the Military Frontier, in 1745 administratively united Slavonia with Croatia and in 1767 organized Croatian royal council with the ban on head, however, she ignored and eventually disbanded it in 1779, and Croatia was relegated to just one seat in the governing council of Hungary, held by theban of Croatia. To fight the Austrian centralization and absolutism, Croats passed their rights to the united government in Hungary, thus to together resist the intentions from Vienna. But the connection with Hungary soon adversely affected the position of Croats, because Magyars in the spring of their nationalism tried to Magyarize Croats, and make Croatia a part of a united Hungary. Because of this pretensions, the constant struggles between Croats and Magyars emerged, and lasted until 1918. Croats were fighting in unfavorable conditions, against both Vienna and Budapest, while divided on Banska Hrvatska, Dalmatia and Military Frontier. In such a time, with the fall of theVenetian Republic in 1797, its possessions in easternAdriatic mostly came under the authority of France which passed its rights to Austria the same year. Eight years later they were restored to France as theIllyrian Provinces, but won back to the Austrian crown 1815. Though now part of the same empire, Dalmatia and Istria were part ofCisleithania while Croatia and Slavonia were in Hungarian part of the Monarchy.[citation needed]
In the 19th century Croatianromantic nationalism emerged to counteract the non-violent but apparentGermanization andMagyarization. The Croatian national revival began in the 1830s with theIllyrian movement. The movement attracted a number of influential figures and produced some important advances in theCroatian language and culture. The champion of the Illyrian movement wasLjudevit Gaj who also reformed and standardized Croatian. The official language in Croatia had been Latin until 1847, when it became Croatian. The movement relied on a South Slavic and Panslavistic conception, and its national, political and social ideas were advanced at the time.[citation needed]
By the 1840s, the movement had moved from cultural goals to resisting Hungarian political demands. By the royal order of 11 January 1843, originating from the chancellorMetternich, the use of the Illyrian name and insignia in public was forbidden.
Modern political history of the Balkans from 1796 onwards.
This deterred the movement's progress but it couldn't stop the changes in the society that had already started. On 25 March 1848, was conducted a political petition "Zahtijevanja naroda", which program included thirty national, social and liberal principles, like Croatian national independence, annexation of Dalmatia and Military Frontier, independence from Hungary as far as finance, language, education, freedom of speech and writing, religion, nullification of serfdom etc. In therevolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, the CroatianBanJelačić cooperated with the Austrians in quenching theHungarian Revolution of 1848 by leading a military campaign into Hungary, successful until theBattle of Pákozd.[citation needed]
Croatia was later subject to Hungarian hegemony under banLevin Rauch when the Empire was transformed into a dual monarchy ofAustria-Hungary in 1867. Nevertheless, Ban Jelačić had succeeded in the abolition ofserfdom in Croatia, which eventually brought about massive changes in society: the power of the major landowners was reduced and arable land became increasingly subdivided, to the extent of risking famine. Many Croatians began emigrating to theNew World countries in this period, a trend that would continue over the next century, creating a large Croatiandiaspora.
In 1939, the Croats received a high degree of autonomy when theBanovina of Croatia was created, which united almost all ethnic Croatian territories within the Kingdom. In theSecond World War, theAxis forces created theIndependent State of Croatia led by theUstaše movement which sought to create an ethnically pure Croatian state on the territory corresponding to present-day countries of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Post-WWIIYugoslavia became afederation consisting of 6 republics, and Croats became one of twoconstituent peoples of two – Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croats in the Serbian autonomous province ofVojvodina are one of six main ethnic groups composing this region.[120]
Following the democratization of society, accompanied with ethnic tensions that emerged ten years after the death ofJosip Broz Tito, the Republic of Croatia declared independence, which was followed bywar. In the first years of the war, over 200,000 Croats were displaced from their homes as a result of the military actions. In the peak of the fighting, around 550,000 ethnic Croats were displaced altogether during the Yugoslav wars.[citation needed]
Post-war government's policy of easing the immigration of ethnic Croats from abroad encouraged a number of Croatian descendants to return to Croatia. The influx was increased by the arrival of Croatian refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina. After the war's end in 1995, most Croatian refugees returned to their previous homes, while some (mostly Croat refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Janjevci from Kosovo) moved into the formerly-held Serbian housing.[citation needed]
Genetically, on theY-chromosome DNA line, a majority (65%) of male Croats from Croatia belong to haplogroupsI2 (39%-40%) andR1a (22%-24%), while a minority (35%) belongs to haplogroupsE (10%),R1b (6%-7%),J (6%-7%),I1 (5-8%),G (2%), and others in <2% traces.[121][122] The distribution, variance and frequency of the I2 and R1a subclades (>65%) among Croats are related to the early medievalSlavic migrations to Southeastern Europe, most probably from the territory of present-day Ukraine and Southeastern Poland.[123][124][125][126][127][128] Genetically, on the maternalmitochondrial DNA line, a majority (>65%) of Croats from Croatia (mainland and coast) belong to three of the eleven major European mtDNA haplogroups –H (45%),U (17.8–20.8%),J (3–11%), while a large minority (>35%) belongs to many other smaller haplogroups.[129] Based onautosomalIBD survey the speakers of Croatian share a very high number of common ancestors dated to themigration period approximately 1,500 years ago with Poland and Romania-Bulgaria clusters among others in Eastern Europe. It was caused by the early medieval Slavic migrations, a small population which expanded into vast regions of "low population density beginning in the sixth century".[130] Other IBD andadmixture studies also found even patterns of admixture events among South, East and West Slavs at the time and area of Slavic expansion, and that the shared ancestral Balto-Slavic component among South Slavs is between 55 and 70%.[131][132] A 2023archaeogenetic study showed that the Croats roughly have 66.5% Central-Eastern European early medieval Slavic-ancestry, 31.2% local Roman and 2.4% West Anatolian ancestry.[128]
Besides Shtokavian, Croats from the Adriatic coastline speak theChakavian dialect, while Croats from the continental northwestern part of Croatia speak theKajkavian dialect. Vernacular texts in the Chakavian dialect first appeared in the 13th century, and Shtokavian texts appeared a century later. Standardization began in the period sometimes called "Baroque Slavism" in the first half of the 17th century,[136] while some authors date it back to the end of the 15th century.[137] The modern Neo-Shtokavian standard that appeared in the mid 18th century was the first unified standard Croatian.[138] Croatian is written inGaj's Latin alphabet.[139]
The beginning of written Croatian can be traced to the 9th century, whenOld Church Slavonic was adopted as the language of the Divineliturgy of St. John Chrysostom and the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil. This language was gradually adapted to non-liturgical purposes and became known as the Croatian version of Old Slavonic. The two variants of the language, liturgical and non-liturgical, continued to be a part of theGlagolitic service as late as the middle of the 19th century. The earliest known Croatian Church Slavonic Glagolitic areVienna Folios from the late 11th/early 12th century.[140] Until the end of the 11th century Croatian medieval texts were written in three scripts:Latin, Glagolitic, andCyrillic,[141] and also in three languages: Croatian,Latin, and Old Slavonic. The latter developed into what is referred to as the Croatian variant ofChurch Slavonic between the 12th and 16th centuries.
The most important early monument of Croatian literacy is theBaška tablet from the late 11th century.[142] It is a large stone tablet found in the smallChurch of St. Lucy, Jurandvor on the Croatian island ofKrk which contains text written mostly in Chakavian, today a dialect of Croatian, and in Shtokavianangular Glagolitic script. It mentionsZvonimir, the king of Croatia at the time. However, the luxurious and ornate representative texts of Croatian Church Slavonic belong to the later era, when they coexisted with the Croatian vernacular literature. The most notable are the "Missal of Duke Novak" from the Lika region in northwestern Croatia (1368), "Evangel from Reims" (1395, named after the town of its final destination),Hrvoje's Missal from Bosnia and Split in Dalmatia (1404).[143] and the first printed book in Croatian, the GlagoliticMissale Romanum Glagolitice (1483).[140]
During the 13th century Croatian vernacular texts began to appear, the most important among them being the "Istrian Land Survey" of 1275 and the "Vinodol Codex" of 1288, both written in the Chakavian dialect.[144][145] TheShtokavian dialect literature, based almost exclusively on Chakavian original texts of religious provenance (missals,breviaries,prayer books) appeared almost a century later. The most important purely Shtokavian dialect vernacular text is theVatican Croatian Prayer Book (ca. 1400).[146]
Croats are predominantlyRoman Catholic, of theLatin Rite, and before Christianity, they adhered toSlavic paganism orRoman paganism. The earliest record of contact between thePope and the Croats dates from a mid-7th century entry in theLiber Pontificalis.Pope John IV (John the Dalmatian, 640–642) sent anabbot named Martin toDalmatia andIstria in order to pay ransom for some prisoners and for therelics of old Christian martyrs. This abbot is recorded to have travelled through Dalmatia with the help of the Croatian leaders, and he established the foundation for future relations between the Pope and the Croats.
The beginnings of theChristianization are also disputed in the historical texts: the Byzantine texts talk of Duke Porin who started this at the incentive of EmperorHeraclius (610–641), then of Duke Porga who mainly Christianized his people after the influence of missionaries from Rome. However, it can be reliably said that the Christianization of Croats began in the 7th century, initially probably encompassed only the elite and related people,[147] but mostly completed by the 9th century.[148][149] The earliest known Croatian autographs from the 8th century are found in the LatinGospel of Cividale.[citation needed]
Croats were never obliged to use Latin—rather, they heldmasses in their own language and used the Glagolitic alphabet.[150] In 1886 it arrived to thePrincipality of Montenegro, followed by the Kingdom of Serbia in 1914, and theRepublic of Czechoslovakia in 1920, but only for feast days of the main patron saints. The 1935 concordat with the Kingdom of Yugoslavia anticipated the introduction of the Church Slavonic for all Croatian regions and throughout the entire state.[151]
Smaller groups of Croats adhere to other religions, likeEastern Orthodoxy (especially inŽumberak),Protestantism andIslam. According to an official population census of Croatia by ethnicity and religion, roughly 16,600 ethnic Croats adhered to Orthodoxy, roughly 8,000 were Protestants, roughly 10,500 described themselves as "other" Christians, and roughly 9,600 were followers of Islam.[152]
Alka is a traditional knights' competition.Istrian scale in Schubert's Symphony No. 8 in B minor (1922), 1st mvt., bars 13–20 (Playⓘ); flat fifth marked with asterisk[153]
The area settled by Croats has a large diversity of historical and cultural influences, as well as the diversity of terrain and geography. The coastland areas of Dalmatia andIstria were subject toRoman Empire,Venetian and Italian rule; central regions likeLika and westernHerzegovina were a scene of battlefield against the Ottoman Empire, and have strong epic traditions. In the northern plains,Austro-Hungarian rule has left its marks. The most distinctive features of Croatianfolklore includeklapa ensembles of Dalmatia,tamburitza orchestras ofSlavonia.[citation needed] Folk arts are performed at special events and festivals, perhaps the most distinctive beingAlka ofSinj, a traditional knights' competition celebrating the victory against Ottoman Turks. The epic tradition is also preserved in epic songs sung withgusle. Various types ofkolo circular dance are also encountered throughout Croatia.[citation needed]
UNESCO | Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in Croatia
Architecture in Croatia reflects the influences of bordering nations. Austrian and Hungarian influence is visible in public spaces and buildings in the north and in the central regions, architecture found along the coasts of Dalmatia and Istria exhibits Venetian influence.[159] Large squares named after culture heroes, well-groomed parks, and pedestrian-only zones, are features of these orderly towns and cities, especially where large scaleBaroque urban planning took place, for instance inVaraždin andKarlovac.[160] Subsequent influence of theArt Nouveau was reflected in contemporary architecture.[161] Along the coast, the architecture is Mediterranean with a strong Venetian and Renaissance influence in major urban areas exemplified in works ofGiorgio da Sebenico andNiccolò Fiorentino such as theCathedral of St. James inŠibenik.The oldest preserved examples of Croatian architecture are the 9th-century churches, with the largest and the most representative among them being theChurch of St. Donatus.[162][163]
Besides the architecture encompassing the oldest artworks in Croatia, there is a long history of artists in Croatia reaching to the Middle Ages. In that period the stone portal of theTrogir Cathedral was made byRadovan, representing the most important monument ofRomanesque sculpture in Croatia. TheRenaissance had the greatest impact on the Adriatic Sea coast since the remainder of Croatia was embroiled in theHundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War. With the waning of the Ottoman Empire, art flourished during theBaroque andRococo. The 19th and the 20th centuries brought about the affirmation of numerous Croatian artisans, helped by several patrons of the arts such as bishopJosip Juraj Strossmayer.[164] Croatian artists of the period achieving worldwide renown wereVlaho Bukovac andIvan Meštrović.[162]
TheCoat of arms of Croatia consists of the traditional red and white squares representingCroatian checkerboard on a coat-of-arms. It has been used to symbolise Croatia for centuries, with the earliest confirmed and dated to 1495 inInnsbruck, Austria during the time ofMaximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor,[168][169][170] andChiesa dei Domenicani inBolzano, Italy also from the late 15th century.[171] The first and only time was officially used in the Kingdom of Croatia in the 16th century was during1527 election in Cetin when Croatian noblemen electedFerdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor as the new King of Croatia.[168] Before that, another CoA was official coat of arms of Croatia, dated at earliest since 1347 with three leopard or lion heads (later associated only with Dalmatia),[168][171][170] while another withsilver crescent moon and six pointed star (so-calledLeliwa) is common misconception to be oldest CoA of Croatia.[170] Region of Slavonia has oldest confirmed CoA, showcasing amarten between rivers Sava and Drava above which issix pointed star and officially granted in 1496 byVladislaus II of Hungary.[170][168] It was used as an official seal by the Slavonian Sabor since 1497, and since 1558 until early 19th century by the united Croatian and Slavonian Sabor.[168] The first coat of arms uniting all three CoA of the Kingdoms of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia dates to 1610.[170]
The current design added the five crowning shields, which represent the historical regions from which Croatia originated. Unlike in many countries, Croatian design more commonly uses symbolism from the coat of arms, rather than from the Croatian flag. This is partly due to the geometric design of the shield which makes it appropriate for use in many graphic contexts (e.g. the insignia ofCroatia Airlines or the design of the shirt for theCroatia national football team), and partly because neighbouring countries like Slovenia and Serbia use the samePan-Slavic colours on their flags as Croatia. TheCroatian interlace (pleter ortroplet) is also a commonly used symbol which originally comes from monasteries built between the 9th and 12th centuries. The interlace can be seen in various emblems and is also featured in modernCroatian military ranks and Croatian police ranks insignia.[citation needed]
In Croatia (thenation state), 3.9 million people identify themselves as Croats and constitute about 90.4% of the population. Another 553,000 live inBosnia and Herzegovina, where they are one of the threeconstituent ethnic groups, predominantly living in WesternHerzegovina,Central Bosnia andBosnian Posavina. The minority inSerbia number about 70,000, mostly inVojvodina,[52][53] where also vast majority of theŠokci consider themselves Croats, as well as manyBunjevci (the latter, as well as other nationalities, settled the vast, abandoned area after the Ottoman retreat; this Croat subgroup originates from the south, mostly from the region ofBačka). Smaller Croat autochthonous minorities exist inSlovenia (mainly inSlovene Littoral,Prekmurje and in theMetlika area inLower Carniola regions – 35,000Croats),Montenegro (mostly in theBay of Kotor – 6,800Croats), and a regional community inKosovo calledJanjevci who nationally identify as Croats. In the 1991 census, Croats consisted 19.8% of the overall population ofYugoslavia; there were around 4.6 million Croats in the entire country.[citation needed]
The subgroups of Croats are commonly based onregional affiliation, like Dalmatians, Slavonians, Zagorci, Istrians etc., while inside and outside Croatia there exist several Croatian sub-ethnic groups:Šokci (Croatia, Serbia, Hungary),Bunjevci (Croatia, Serbia, Hungary),Burgenland Croats (Austria),Molise Croats (Italy),Bokelji (Montenegro),Raci (Hungary),Krashovani (Romania), andJanjevci (Kosovo).
InMontenegro, theBay of Kotor,Croats are a national minority, numbering 6,021 people or 0.97% of the population.
InSerbia,Croats are a national minority, numbering 57,900 people or 0.80% of the population. They mostly live in the region ofVojvodina, where Croatian is official (along with five other languages), and the national capital city ofBelgrade.
In Austria, Croats are an ethnic minority, numbering around 30,000 people inBurgenland (Burgenland Croats), the eastern part of Austria,[172] and around 15,000 people in the capital city ofVienna.
In theCzech Republic,Croats are a national minority, numbering 850–2,000 people, forming a portion of the 29% minority (as "Others"). They mostly live in the region ofMoravia, in the villages ofJevišovka,Dobré Pole andNový Přerov.
In Hungary,Croats are an ethnic minority, numbering 25,730 people or 0.26% of the population.[173]
In Italy,Croats are alinguistic, and ethnic minority, numbering 23,880 people, of which 2,801 people belong to the ethnic minority ofMolise Croats from the region ofMolise.
InBulgaria, there exists a small Croatian community, a branch ofJanjevci, Croats fromKosovo.
In New Zealand, the mixed Croatian and MāoriTarara people have their own culture, traditions and customs, and live inTe Tai Tokerau, New Zealand's northernmost region. 15 March isTarara Day to celebrate their heritage.
In Kosovo, Croats or Janjevci (Letničani), as they inhabited mostly the town ofJanjevo, before 1991 numbered 8,062 people, but after the war many fled, and as of 2011[update] number only 270 people.
There are currently 4–4.5 million Croats indiaspora throughout the world. The Croat diaspora was the consequence of either mostly economic or political (coercion or expulsions) reasons:
A further, larger wave of emigration, this time for political reasons, took place after the end of theWorld War II in Yugoslavia. At this time, both collaborators of theUstasha regime and those who did not want to live under acommunist regime fled the country, to the Americas andOceania once more.
As immigrant workers, particularly to Germany, Austria, andSwitzerland in the 1960s and 1970s. In addition, someemigrants left for political reasons. This migration made it possible for communistYugoslavia to achieve lower unemployment and at the same time the money sent home by emigrants to their families provided an enormous source of foreign exchange income.
The last large wave of Croat emigration occurred during and after theYugoslav Wars (1991–1995). Migrant communities already established in the Americas, Oceania, and across Europe grew as a result.
Various estimations put the total number of Americans and Canadians with at least some Croatian ancestry at 2 million, many of whom do not identify as such in the countries' censuses.[42][43][44][45][46][174][48][175]
Croats have also emigrated in several waves to South America: chieflyChile,Argentina, andBrazil; estimates of their number vary wildly, from 150,000 up to 500,000.[176][177] Both the presidents of Chile (Gabriel Boric) and Argentina (Javier Milei) are of Croatian descent.[178][179]
^Diaspora CroataArchived 9 May 2016 at theWayback MachineEl Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores de la República de Chile evalúa que en ese país actualmente viven 380.000 personas consideradas de ser de descendencia croata, lo que es un 2,4% de la población total de Chile.
^Fer Projekt, Put Murvice 14, Zadar, Hrvatska, +385 98 212 96 00, www.fer-projekt.com."Hrvatska manjina u Republici Austriji". Hrvatiizvanrh.hr. Archived fromthe original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved10 March 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^Marty, Martin E. (1997).Religion, Ethnicity, and Self-Identity: Nations in Turmoil. University Press of New England.ISBN0-87451-815-6.[...] the three ethnoreligious groups that have played the roles of the protagonists in the bloody tragedy that has unfolded in the former Yugoslavia: the Christian Orthodox Serbs, the Catholic Croats, and the Muslim Slavs of Bosnia.
^Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations for 1994: Testimony of members of Congress and other interested individuals and organizations. United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs. 1993. p. 690.
^abNational Genealogical Inquirer. Janlen Enterprises. 1979. p. 47.
^Kapiteli, Marija; Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu."Tarara Day".teara.govt.nz.Archived from the original on 29 November 2022. Retrieved29 November 2022.
^"About BiH".Bhas.ba. Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Archived fromthe original on 11 July 2012. Retrieved7 August 2019.
^Gluhak, Alemko (1993).Hrvatski etimološki rječnik [Croatian Etymological Dictionary] (in Croatian). August Cesarec.ISBN953-162-000-8.
^Matasović, Ranko (2019),"Ime Hrvata" [The Name of Croats],Jezik (Croatian Philological Society) (in Croatian),66 (3), Zagreb:81–97,archived from the original on 12 December 2022, retrieved4 April 2023
^Fabijanić, Tomislav (2013). "14C date from early Christian basilica gemina in Podvršje (Croatia) in the context of Slavic settlement on the eastern Adriatic coast".The early Slavic settlement of Central Europe in the light of new dating evidence. Wroclaw: Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. pp. 251–260.ISBN978-83-63760-10-6.
^Bekić, Luka (2012)."Keramika praškog tipa u Hrvatskoj".Dani Stjepana Gunjače 2, Zbornik radova sa Znanstvenog skupa "Dani Sjepana Gunjače 2": Hrvatska srednjovjekovna povijesno-arheološka baština, Međunarodne teme. Split: Muzej hrvatskih arheoloških spomenika. pp. 21–35.ISBN978-953-6803-36-1.
^Wolfram (2002) Liudewit is considered the first Croatian prince. Constantine Porphyrogenitus has Dalmatia and parts of Slavonia populated by Croatians. But this author wrote more than a hundred years after the Frankish Royal annals which never mention the name of the Croatians although a great many Slavic tribal names are mentioned in the text. Therefore, if one applies the methods of an ethnogenetic interpretation, the Croatian Liudewit seems to be an anachronism.
^Dvornik, F.; Jenkins, R. J. H.; Lewis, B.; Moravcsik, Gy.; Obolensky, D.; Runciman, S. (1962). P. J. H. Jenkins (ed.).De Administrando Imperio: Volume II. Commentary. University of London: The Athlone Press. pp. 139, 142.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved13 July 2022.
^Živković, Tibor (2012). "Неретљани – пример разматрања идентитета у раном средњем веку" [Arentani – an Example of Identity Examination in the Early Middle Ages].Istorijski časopis.61:12–13.
^Dvornik 1962, p. 138–139:Even if we reject Gruber's theory, supported by Manojlović (ibid., XLIX), that Zachlumje actually became a part of Croatia, it should be emphasized that the Zachlumians had a closer bond of interest with the Croats than with the Serbs, since they seem to have migrated to their new home not, as C. says (33/8-9), with the Serbs, but with the Croats; see below, on 33/18-19 ... This emendation throws new light on the origin of the Zachlumian dynasty and of the Zachlumi themselves. C.'s informant derived what he says about the country of Michael's ancestors from a native source, probably from a member of the prince's family; and the information is reliable. If this is so, we must regard the dynasty of Zachlumje and at any rate part of its people as neither Croat nor Serb. It seems more probable that Michael's ancestor, together with his tribe, joined the Croats when they moved south; and settled on the Adriatic coast and the Narenta, leaving the Croats to push on into Dalmatia proper. It is true that our text says that the Zachlumi 'have been Serbs since the time of that prince who claimed the protection of the emperor Heraclius' (33/9-10); but it does not say that Michael's family were Serbs, only that they 'came from the unbaptized who dwell on the river Visla, and are called (reading Litziki) "Poles'". Michael's own hostility to Serbia (cf. 32/86-90) suggests that his family was in fact not Serb; and that the Serbs had direct control only over Trebinje (see on 32/30). C.'s general claim that the Zachlumians were Serbs is, therefore, inaccurate; and indeed his later statements that the Terbouniotes (34/4—5), and even the Narentans (36/5-7), were Serbs and came with the Serbs, seem to conflict with what he has said earlier (32/18-20) on the Serb migration, which reached the new Serbia from the direction of Belgrade. He probably saw that in his time all these tribes were in the Serb sphere of influence, and therefore called them Serbs, thus ante-dating by three centuries the state of affairs in his own day. But in fact, as has been shown in the case of the Zachlumians, these tribes were not properly speaking Serbs, and seem to have migrated not with the Serbs but with the Croats. The Serbs at an early date succeeded in extending their sovereignty over the Terbouniotes and, under prince Peter, for a short time over the Narentans (see on 32/67). The Diocleans, whom C. does not claim as Serbs, were too near to the Byzantine thema of Dyrrhachion for the Serbs to attempt their subjugation before C.'s time
^Dvornik, Francis (1970).Byzantine Missions Among the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 26.ISBN9780813506135.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved21 July 2022.Constantine regards all Slavic tribes in ancient Praevalis and Epirus—the Zachlumians, Tribunians, Diodetians, Narentans— as Serbs. This is not exact. Even these tribes were liberated from the Avars by the Croats who lived among them. Only later, thanks to the expansion of the Serbs, did they recognize their supremacy and come to be called Serbians.
^Živković 2006, pp. 60–61:Constantine Porphyrogenitus explicitly calls the inhabitants of Zahumlje Serbs who have settled there since the time of Emperor Heraclius, but we cannot be certain that the Travunians, Zachlumians and Narentines in the migration period to the Balkans really were Serbs or Croats or Slavic tribes which in alliance with Serbs or Croats arrived in the Balkans
^"Neretljani".Hrvatski obiteljski leksikon (in Croatian).Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved12 December 2017.
^A. Zupan; et al. (2013)."The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations".Annals of Human Biology.40 (6):515–526.doi:10.3109/03014460.2013.813584.PMID23879710.S2CID34621779.However, a study by Battaglia et al. (2009) showed a variance peak for I2a1 in the Ukraine and, based on the observed pattern of variation, it could be suggested that at least part of the I2a1 haplogroup could have arrived in the Balkans and Slovenia with the Slavic migrations from a homeland in present-day Ukraine. The calculated age of this specific haplogroup together with the variation peak detected in the suggested Slavic homeland could represent a signal of Slavic migration arising from medieval Slavic expansions. However, the strong genetic barrier around the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, associated with the high frequency of the I2a1b-M423 haplogroup, could also be a consequence of a Paleolithic genetic signal of a Balkan refuge area, followed by mixing with a medieval Slavic signal from modern-day Ukraine.
^Underhill, Peter A. (2015), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a",European Journal of Human Genetics,23 (1):124–131,doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50,PMC4266736,PMID24667786,R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere (Figure 2d). Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe. In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage.
^Pamjav, Horolma; Fehér, Tibor; Németh, Endre; Koppány Csáji, László (2019).Genetika és őstörténet (in Hungarian). Napkút Kiadó. p. 58.ISBN978-963-263-855-3.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved12 December 2020.Az I2-CTS10228 (köznevén "dinári-kárpáti") alcsoport legkorábbi közös őse 2200 évvel ezelőttre tehető, így esetében nem arról van szó, hogy a mezolit népesség Kelet-Európában ilyen mértékben fennmaradt volna, hanem arról, hogy egy, a mezolit csoportoktól származó szűk család az európai vaskorban sikeresen integrálódott egy olyan társadalomba, amely hamarosan erőteljes demográfiai expanzióba kezdett. Ez is mutatja, hogy nem feltétlenül népek, mintsem családok sikerével, nemzetségek elterjedésével is számolnunk kell, és ezt a jelenlegi etnikai identitással összefüggésbe hozni lehetetlen. A csoport elterjedése alapján valószínűsíthető, hogy a szláv népek migrációjában vett részt, így válva az R1a-t követően a második legdominánsabb csoporttá a mai Kelet-Európában. Nyugat-Európából viszont teljes mértékben hiányzik, kivéve a kora középkorban szláv nyelvet beszélő keletnémet területeket.
^Fóthi, E.; Gonzalez, A.; Fehér, T.; et al. (2020), "Genetic analysis of male Hungarian Conquerors: European and Asian paternal lineages of the conquering Hungarian tribes",Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences,12 (1): 31,Bibcode:2020ArAnS..12...31F,doi:10.1007/s12520-019-00996-0,Based on SNP analysis, the CTS10228 group is 2200 ± 300 years old. The group's demographic expansion may have begun in Southeast Poland around that time, as carriers of the oldest subgroup are found there today. The group cannot solely be tied to the Slavs, because the proto-Slavic period was later, around 300–500 CE... The SNP-based age of the Eastern European CTS10228 branch is 2200 ± 300 years old. The carriers of the most ancient subgroup live in Southeast Poland, and it is likely that the rapid demographic expansion which brought the marker to other regions in Europe began there. The largest demographic explosion occurred in the Balkans, where the subgroup is dominant in 50.5% of Croatians, 30.1% of Serbs, 31.4% of Montenegrins, and in about 20% of Albanians and Greeks. As a result, this subgroup is often called Dinaric. It is interesting that while it is dominant among modern Balkan peoples, this subgroup has not been present yet during the Roman period, as it is almost absent in Italy as well (see Online Resource 5; ESM_5).
^Benjamin W. Fortson IV,Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (2010, Blackwell), pg. 431, "Because of their mutual intelligibility, Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian are usually thought of as constituting one language called Serbo-Croatian."
^"The right to use the Glagolitic language at Mass with the Roman Rite has prevailed for many centuries in all the south-western Balkan countries, and has been sanctioned by long practice and by many popes" (DalmatiaArchived 3 March 2016 at theWayback Machine in Catholic Encyclopedia)
^Darja Radović Mahečić (2006)."Sekvenca secesije – arhitekt Lav Kalda" [Sequence of the Art Nouveau – Architect Lav Kalda](PDF).Radovi Instituta Za Povijest Umjetnosti (in Croatian).30. Institute of Art History (Croatia):241–264.ISSN0350-3437. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved10 October 2011.
^Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations for 1994: Testimony of members of Congress and other interested individuals and organizations. United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs. 1993. p. 690.
Wolfram, Herwig (2002), "Slavic Princes in the Carolingian Marches of Bavaria",Hortus Artium Medievalium,8:205–208,doi:10.1484/J.HAM.2.305235
I. H. Garipzanov; P. Geary; P. Urbanczyk, eds. (2008), "Identities in Early Medieval Dalmatia (Seventh–Eleventh Centuries)",Franks, Northmen, and Slavs Identities and State Formation in Early Medieval Europe, Brepols
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