Evangelicalism (/ˌiːvænˈdʒɛlɪkəlɪzəm,ˌɛvæn-,-ən-/), also calledevangelical Christianity orevangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide,interdenominational movement withinProtestant Christianity that emphasizesevangelism, or the preaching and spreading of theChristian gospel. The term evangelical is derived from theKoine Greek wordeuangelion, meaning “good news,” in reference to the message ofsalvation throughJesus Christ. Evangelicalism typically places a strong emphasis on personalconversion, often described as being “born again,” and regards theBible as the ultimate authority in matters offaith and practice. The definition and scope of evangelicalism are subjects of debate amongtheologians andscholars. Some critics argue that the term encompasses a wide and diverse range of beliefs and practices, making it difficult to define as a coherent or unified movement.
The wordevangelical has its etymological roots in the Greek word for 'gospel' or 'good news':εὐαγγέλιονeuangelion, fromeu 'good',angel- thestem of, among other words,angelos 'messenger, angel', and theneutersuffix-ion.[1] By the English Middle Ages, the term had expanded semantically to include not only the message, but also theNew Testament which contained the message as well as more specifically theGospels, which portray the life, death, and resurrection ofJesus.[2] The first published use ofevangelical in English was in 1531, whenWilliam Tyndale wrote "He exhorteth them to proceed constantly in the evangelical truth." One year later,Thomas More wrote the earliest recorded use in reference to a theological distinction when he spoke of "Tyndale [and] his evangelical brother Barns."[3]
During theReformation, Protestant theologians embraced the term as referring to "gospel truth."Martin Luther referred to theevangelische Kirche ("evangelical church") to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in theCatholic Church.[4][5] Into the 21st century,evangelical has continued in use as a synonym forMainline Protestant incontinental Europe. This usage is reflected in the names of Protestant denominations, such as theEvangelical Lutheran Church in America.[2] The German termevangelisch more accurately corresponds to the broad English termProtestant[6] and should not be confused with the narrower German termevangelikal, or the termpietistisch (a term etymologically related to thePietist andRadical Pietist movements), which are used to describe Evangelicalism in the sense used in this article.Mainline Protestant denominations with aLutheran or semi-Lutheran background, like theEvangelical Lutheran Church in America, theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Canada, and theEvangelical Lutheran Church of England, who are not evangelical in theevangelikal sense but Protestant in theevangelisch sense, have translated the German termevangelisch (or Protestant) into the English termEvangelical, although the two German words have different meanings.[6] In other parts of the world, especially in the English-speaking world, evangelical (German:evangelikal orpietistisch) is commonly applied to describe theinterdenominationalBorn-Again believing movement.[7][8][9][10][11]
Christian historianDavid W. Bebbington writes that, "Although 'evangelical,' with a lower-case initial, is occasionally used to mean 'of the gospel,' the term 'Evangelical' with a capital letter, is applied to any aspect of the movement beginning in the 1730s."[12] According to theOxford English Dictionary,evangelicalism was first used in 1831.[13] In 1812, the termevangelicalism appeared inThe History of Lynn byWilliam Richards.[14] In the summer of 1811 the termevangelicalists was used inThe Sin and Danger of Schism by Rev. Dr.Andrew Burnaby,Archdeacon of Leicester.[15]
The term may also be used outside any religious context to characterize a generic missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose. For example,The Times Literary Supplement refers to "the rise and fall of evangelical fervor within the Socialist movement."[16] This usage refers toevangelism, rather than evangelicalism as discussed here; though sharing an etymology and conceptual basis, the words have diverged significantly in meaning.
One influential definition of evangelicalism has been proposed by historian David Bebbington.[17] Bebbington notes four distinctive aspects of evangelical faith:conversionism,biblicism,crucicentrism, and activism, noting, "Together they form a quadrilateral of priorities that is the basis of Evangelicalism."[18]
Conversionism, or belief in the necessity of being "born again," has been a constant theme of evangelicalism since its beginnings.[19] To evangelicals, the central message of the gospel isjustification by faith in Christ andrepentance, or turning away, fromsin. Conversion differentiates the Christian from the non-Christian, and the change in life it leads to is marked by both a rejection of sin and a corresponding personalholiness of life. A conversion experience can be emotional, including grief and sorrow for sin followed by great relief at receiving forgiveness. The stress on conversion differentiates evangelicalism from other forms of Protestantism by the associated belief that anassurance will accompany conversion.[20] Among evangelicals, individuals have testified to both sudden and gradual conversions.[21][22]
Crucicentrism is the centrality that evangelicals give to theAtonement, the savingdeath and theresurrection of Jesus, that offers forgiveness of sins and new life. This is understood most commonly in terms of asubstitutionary atonement, in which Christ died as a substitute for sinful humanity by taking on himself the guilt and punishment for sin.[24]
Activism describes the tendency toward active expression and sharing of the gospel in diverse ways that include preaching and social action. This aspect of evangelicalism continues to be seen today in the proliferation of evangelical voluntary religious groups andparachurch organizations.[25]
Many evangelical traditions adhere to the doctrine of thebelievers' Church, which teaches that one becomes a member of theChurch by thenew birth and profession of faith.[28][29] This originated in theRadical Reformation withAnabaptists[30] but is held by denominations that practicebeliever's baptism.[31] Evangelicals in the Anglican, Methodist and Reformed traditions practiceinfant baptism as one's initiation into the community of faith and the New Testament counterpart tocircumcision, while also stressing the necessity of personal conversion later in life forsalvation.[32][33][34]
Some evangelical denominations operate according toepiscopal polity orpresbyterian polity. However, the most common form of church government within Evangelicalism iscongregational polity. This is especially common among nondenominational evangelical churches.[35] Many churches are members of a national and internationaldenomination for a cooperative relationship in common organizations, for themission and social areas, such ashumanitarian aid, schools,theological institutes and hospitals.[36][37][38][39] Commonministries within evangelical congregations arepastor,elder,deacon,evangelist andworship leader.[40] The ministry ofbishop with a function of supervision over churches on a regional or national scale is present in all the EvangelicalChristian denominations, even if the titles president of the council or general overseer are mainly used for this function.[41][42] The term bishop is explicitly used in certain denominations.[43] Some evangelical denominations are members of theWorld Evangelical Alliance and its 129 national alliances.[44]
For evangelicals, there are three interrelated meanings to the termworship. It can refer to living a "God-pleasing and God-focused way of life," specific actions of praise to God, and a publicworship service.[53] Diversity characterizes evangelical worship practices.Liturgical,contemporary,charismatic andseeker-sensitive worship styles can all be found among evangelical churches. Overall, evangelicals tend to be more flexible and experimental with worship practices than mainline Protestant churches.[54] It is usually run by a Christianpastor. A service is often divided into several parts, including congregational singing, a sermon,intercessory prayer, and other ministry.[55][56][57][58] During worship there is usually anursery for babies.[59] Children and young people receive an adapted education,Sunday school, in a separate room.[60]
Places of worship are usually called "churches."[61][62][63] In somemegachurches, the building is called "campus."[64][65] Thearchitecture of places of worship is mainly characterized by its sobriety.[66][67] TheLatin cross is one of the only spiritual symbols that can usually be seen on the building of an evangelical church and that identifies the place's belonging.[68][69]
Some services take place in theaters, schools or multipurpose rooms, rented for Sunday only.[70][71][72] Because of their understanding ofthe second of theTen Commandments, some evangelicals do not have religious material representations such as statues, icons, or paintings in their places of worship.[73][74] There is usually abaptistery on what is variously known as thechancel (also called sanctuary) or stage, though they may be alternatively found in a separate room, for thebaptisms by immersion.[75][76]
The main Christian feasts celebrated by the Evangelicals areChristmas,Pentecost (by a majority of Evangelical denominations) andEaster for all believers.[83][84][85]
Evangelical churches have been involved in the establishment of elementary and secondary schools.[86] It also enabled the development of severalbible colleges,colleges anduniversities in the United States during the 19th century.[87][88] Other evangelical universities have been established in various countries of the world.[89]
TheAssociation of Christian Schools International was founded in 1978 by 3 American associations of evangelical Christian schools.[93] Various international schools have joined the network.[94] In 2023, it had 23,000 schools in 100 countries.[95]
In matters ofsexuality, there is a wide variety of thought among evangelicals and evangelical churches, but they tend to be conservative and prescriptive in general.[98] Many evangelical churches promote thevirginity pledge (abstinence pledge) among young evangelical Christians, who are invited to commit themselves, during a public ceremony, tosexual abstinence untilChristian marriage.[99] This pledge is often symbolized by apurity ring.[100]
In some evangelical churches, young adults and unmarried couples are encouraged to marry early in order to live a sexuality according to the will of God.[101][102]
A 2009 American study of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy reported that 80 percent of young, unmarried evangelicals have had sex and that 42 percent were in a relationship with sex, when surveyed.[103]
The majority of evangelical Christian churches are againstabortion and support adoption agencies and social support agencies for young mothers.[104]
Masturbation is seen as forbidden by some evangelical pastors because of the sexual thoughts that may accompany it.[105][106] However, evangelical pastors have pointed out that the practice has been erroneously associated withOnan by scholars, that it is not a sin if it is not practiced with fantasies or compulsively, and that it was useful in a married couple, if his or her partner did not have the same frequency of sexual needs.[107][108]
Theperceptions of homosexuality in the Evangelical Churches are varied. They range fromliberal tofundamentalist ormoderateconservative and neutral.[119][120] A 2011 Pew Research Center study found that 84 percent of evangelical leaders surveyed believed homosexuality should be discouraged.[121] It is in the fundamentalistconservative positions that there areantigay activists on TV or radio who claim that homosexuality is the cause of many social problems, such as terrorism.[122][123][124] Some churches have a conservative moderate position.[125] Although they do not approve homosexual practices, they claim to show sympathy and respect for homosexuals.[126] Some evangelical denominations have adopted neutral positions, leaving the choice to local churches to decide forsame-sex marriage.[127][128] There are some international evangelical denominations that aregay-friendly.[129][130]
Christian marriage is presented by some churches as a protection against sexual misconduct and a compulsory step to obtain a position of responsibility in the church.[131] This concept, however, has been challenged by numerous sex scandals involving married evangelical leaders.[132][133] Finally, evangelical theologians recalled thatcelibacy should be more valued in the Church today, since the gift of celibacy was taught and lived byJesus Christ andPaul of Tarsus.[134][135]
For a majority of evangelical Christians, a belief inbiblical inerrancy ensures that themiracles described in the Bible are still relevant and may be present in the life of the believer.[136][137] Healings, academic or professional successes, the birth of a child after several attempts, the end of anaddiction, etc., would be tangible examples of God's intervention with thefaith andprayer, by theHoly Spirit.[138] In the 1980s, theneo-charismatic movement re-emphasized miracles andfaith healing.[139] In certain churches, a special place is thus reserved for faith healings withlaying on of hands during worship services or for evangelization campaigns.[140][141] Faith healing or divine healing is considered to be an inheritance ofJesus acquired by his death and resurrection.[142] This view is typically ascribed to Pentecostal denominations, and not others that are cessationist (believing that miraculous gifts have ceased.)
Pentecostal Evangelical Roma communities in Romania that have been evangelized by American missionaries, who mostly belong to Kalderash and Muchwaya Roma groups and once belonged to the Eastern Orthodox Christian Church, do not see the Muslim Roma (Xoraxane) as Roma and call them gypsies or simply muzzi, as long as they belong to Islam.[150]
In the early 20th century, evangelical influence declined withinmainline Protestantism andChristian fundamentalism developed as a distinct religious movement. Between 1950 and 2000 a mainstream evangelical consensus developed that sought to be more inclusive and more culturally relevant than fundamentalism while maintainingtheologically conservative Protestant teaching. According toBrian Stanley, professor ofworld Christianity, this new postwar consensus is termedneoevangelicalism, thenew evangelicalism, or simplyevangelicalism in the United States, while in Great Britain and in other English-speaking countries, it is commonly termedconservative evangelicalism. Over the years, less conservative evangelicals have challenged this mainstream consensus to varying degrees. Such movements have been classified by a variety of labels, such asprogressive,open,postconservative, andpostevangelical.[157]
Outside of self-consciously evangelical denominations, there is a broader "evangelical streak" in mainline Protestantism.[28] Mainline Protestant churches predominantly have aliberal theology while evangelical churches predominantly have afundamentalist ormoderateconservative theology.[158][159][160][161]
Some commentators have complained that Evangelicalism as a movement is too broad and its definition too vague to be of any practical value. Theologian Donald Dayton has called for a "moratorium" on use of the term.[162] HistorianD. G. Hart has also argued that "evangelicalism needs to be relinquished as a religious identity because it does not exist".[163]
Mainstream evangelicalism is historically divided between two main orientations:confessionalism andrevivalism. These two streams have been critical of each other. Confessional evangelicals have been suspicious of unguardedreligious experience, while revivalist evangelicals have been critical of overly intellectual teaching that (they suspect) stifles vibrantspirituality.[171] In an effort to broaden their appeal, many contemporary evangelical congregations intentionally avoid identifying with any single form of evangelicalism. These "generic evangelicals" are usually theologically and socially conservative, but their churches often present themselves as nondenominational (or, if a denominational member, strongly deemphasize its ties to such, such as a church name which excludes the denominational name) within the broader evangelical movement.[172]
In the words ofAlbert Mohler, president of theSouthern Baptist Theological Seminary, confessional evangelicalism refers to "that movement of Christian believers who seek a constant convictional continuity with the theological formulas of the Protestant Reformation". While approving of the evangelical distinctions proposed by Bebbington, confessional evangelicals believe that authentic evangelicalism requires more concrete definition in order to protect the movement from theological liberalism and fromheresy. According to confessional evangelicals,subscription to theecumenical creeds and to the Reformation-era confessions of faith (such as theconfessions of the Reformed churches) provides such protection.[173] Confessional evangelicals are represented by conservativePresbyterian churches (emphasizing theWestminster Confession), certain Baptist churches that emphasize historic Baptist confessions such as theSecond London Confession, evangelical Anglicans who emphasize theThirty-Nine Articles (such as in theAnglican Diocese of Sydney, Australia[174]),Methodist churches that adhere to theArticles of Religion, and someconfessional Lutherans with pietistic convictions.[175][154]
The emphasis on historic Protestant orthodoxy among confessional evangelicals stands in direct contrast to an anticreedal outlook that has exerted its own influence on evangelicalism, particularly among churches strongly affected by revivalism and bypietism. Revivalist evangelicals are represented by some quarters ofMethodism, theWesleyan Holiness churches, the Pentecostal andcharismatic churches, some Anabaptist churches, and some Baptists and Presbyterians.[154] Revivalist evangelicals tend to place greater emphasis on religious experience than their confessional counterparts.[171]
Evangelicals dissatisfied with the movement's fundamentalism mainstream have been variously described as progressive evangelicals, postconservative evangelicals,open evangelicals andpostevangelicals. Progressive evangelicals, also known as theevangelical left, share theological or social views with otherprogressive Christians while also identifying with evangelicalism. Progressive evangelicals commonly advocate for women's equality,pacifism andsocial justice.[176]
As described by Baptist theologianRoger E. Olson, postconservative evangelicalism is a theological school of thought that adheres to the four marks of evangelicalism, while being less rigid and more inclusive of other Christians.[177] According to Olson, postconservatives believe that doctrinal truth is secondary to spiritual experience shaped byScripture. Postconservative evangelicals seek greater dialogue with other Christian traditions and support the development of a multicultural evangelical theology that incorporates the voices of women, racial minorities, and Christians in the developing world. Some postconservative evangelicals also supportopen theism and the possibility of nearuniversal salvation.
The term "open evangelical" refers to a particular Christian school of thought orchurchmanship, primarily in Great Britain (especially in theChurch of England).[178] Open evangelicals describe their position as combining a traditional evangelical emphasis on the nature of scriptural authority, the teaching of the ecumenical creeds and other traditional doctrinal teachings, with an approach towards culture and othertheological points-of-view which tends to be more inclusive than that taken by other evangelicals. Some open evangelicals aim to take a middle position between conservative and charismatic evangelicals, while others would combine conservative theological emphases with more liberal social positions.
British author Dave Tomlinson coined the phrasepostevangelical to describe a movement comprising various trends of dissatisfaction among evangelicals. Others use the term with comparable intent, often to distinguish evangelicals in theemerging church movement from postevangelicals and antievangelicals. Tomlinson argues that "linguistically, the distinction[between evangelical and postevangelical] resembles the one that sociologists make between themodern andpostmodern eras".[179]
Modern evangelicalism emerged in the 18th century,[180] first in Britain and its North American colonies. Nevertheless, there were earlier developments within the larger Protestant world that preceded and influenced the later evangelical revivals. According to religion scholarRandall Balmer, Evangelicalism resulted "from the confluence ofPietism, Presbyterianism, and the vestiges of Puritanism. Evangelicalism picked up the peculiar characteristics from each strain – warmhearted spirituality from the Pietists (for instance), doctrinal precisionism from the Presbyterians, and individualistic introspection from the Puritans".[181] HistorianMark Noll adds to this listHigh Church Anglicanism, which contributed to Evangelicalism a legacy of "rigorous spirituality and innovative organization."[182] Historian Rick Kennedy has identifiedNew England Puritan clergymanCotton Mather as the "first American Evangelical".[183]
During the 17th century, Pietism emerged in Europe as a movement for the revival ofpiety and devotion within theLutheran church. As a protest against "cold orthodoxy" or against an overly formal and rational Christianity, Pietists advocated for an experiential religion that stressed high moral standards both for clergy and for lay people. The movement included both Christians who remained in theliturgical,state churches as well asseparatist groups who rejected the use of baptismal fonts, altars, pulpits, and confessionals. AsRadical Pietism spread, the movement's ideals and aspirations influenced and were absorbed by evangelicals.[184]
WhenGeorge Fox, who is considered the founder ofQuakerism,[185] was eleven, he wrote that God spoke to him about "keeping pure and being faithful to God and man."[186] After being troubled when his friends asked him to drink alcohol with them at the age of nineteen, Fox spent the night in prayer and soon afterwards he left his home in a four year search for spiritual satisfaction.[186] In hisJournal, at age 23, he believed that he "found through faith in Jesus Christ the full assurance of salvation."[186] Fox began to spread his message and his emphasis on "the necessity of an inward transformation of heart", as well as the possibility ofChristian perfection, drew opposition from English clergy and laity.[186] In the mid-1600s, many people became attracted to Fox's preaching and his followers became known as theReligious Society of Friends.[186] By 1660, the Quakers grew to 35,000, and while the two movements are distinct and have important differences like the doctrine of theInward Light, they are considered by some to be among the first in the evangelical Christian movement.[155][186]
The Presbyterian heritage not only gave Evangelicalism a commitment to Protestant orthodoxy but also contributed a revival tradition that stretched back to the 1620s in Scotland and Northern Ireland.[187] Central to this tradition was thecommunion season, which normally occurred in the summer months. For Presbyterians, celebrations ofHoly Communion were infrequent but popular events preceded by several Sundays of preparatory preaching and accompanied with preaching, singing, and prayers.[188]
Puritanism combinedCalvinism with a doctrine that conversion was a prerequisite for church membership and with an emphasis on the study of Scripture by lay people. It took root in the colonies ofNew England, where theCongregational church became an established religion. There theHalf-Way Covenant of 1662 allowed parents who had not testified to a conversion experience to have their children baptized, while reserving Holy Communion for converted church members alone.[189] By the 18th century Puritanism was in decline and manyministers expressed alarm at the loss of religious piety. This concern over declining religious commitment led many[quantify] people to support evangelical revival.[190]
High-Church Anglicanism also exerted influence on early Evangelicalism. High Churchmen were distinguished by their desire to adhere toprimitive Christianity. This desire included imitating the faith and ascetic practices of early Christians as well as regularly partaking of Holy Communion. High Churchmen were also enthusiastic organizers of voluntary religious societies. Two of the most prominent were theSociety for Promoting Christian Knowledge (founded in London in 1698), which distributed Bibles and other literature and built schools, and theSociety for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, which was founded in England in 1701 to facilitate missionary work in British colonies (especially among colonists in North America).Samuel andSusanna Wesley, the parents ofJohn andCharles Wesley (born 1703 and 1707 respectively), were both devoted advocates of High-Church ideas.[191][192]
In the 1730s, Evangelicalism emerged as a distinct phenomenon out of religious revivals that began in Britain and New England. While religious revivals had occurred within Protestant churches in the past, the evangelical revivals that marked the 18th century were more intense and radical.[193] Evangelical revivalism imbued ordinary men and women with a confidence and enthusiasm for sharing the gospel and converting others outside of the control of established churches, a key discontinuity with the Protestantism of the previous era.[194]
It was developments in the doctrine of assurance that differentiated Evangelicalism from what went before. Bebbington says, "The dynamism of the Evangelical movement was possible only because its adherents were assured in their faith."[195] He goes on:
Whereas the Puritans had held that assurance is rare, late and the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers, the Evangelicals believed it to be general, normally given at conversion and the result of simple acceptance of the gift of God. The consequence of the altered form of the doctrine was a metamorphosis in the nature of popular Protestantism. There was a change in patterns of piety, affecting devotional and practical life in all its departments. The shift, in fact, was responsible for creating in Evangelicalism a new movement and not merely a variation on themes heard since the Reformation.[196]
The first local revival occurred inNorthampton, Massachusetts, under the leadership of Congregationalist ministerJonathan Edwards. In the fall of 1734, Edwards preached a sermon series on "Justification By Faith Alone", and the community's response was extraordinary. Signs of religious commitment among thelaity increased, especially among the town's young people. The revival ultimately spread to 25 communities in western Massachusetts and central Connecticut until it began to wane by the spring of 1735.[197] Edwards was heavily influenced by Pietism, so much so that one historian has stressed his "American Pietism".[198] One practice clearly copied from European Pietists was the use of small groups divided by age and gender, which met in private homes to conserve and promote the fruits of revival.[199]
At the same time, students atYale University (at that time Yale College) in New Haven, Connecticut, were also experiencing revival. Among them wasAaron Burr Sr., who would become a prominent Presbyterian minister and future president ofPrinceton University. In New Jersey,Gilbert Tennent, another Presbyterian minister, was preaching the evangelical message and urging thePresbyterian Church to stress the necessity of converted ministers.[200]
The spring of 1735 also marked important events in England and Wales.Howell Harris, a Welsh schoolteacher, had a conversion experience on May 25 during a communion service. He described receiving assurance of God'sgrace after a period offasting, self-examination, and despair over his sins.[201] Sometime later,Daniel Rowland, the Anglicancurate of Llangeitho, Wales, experienced conversion as well. Both men began preaching the evangelical message to large audiences, becoming leaders of theWelsh Methodist revival.[202] At about the same time that Harris experienced conversion in Wales,George Whitefield was converted at Oxford University after his own prolonged spiritual crisis. Whitefield later remarked, "About this time God was pleased to enlighten my soul and bring me into the knowledge of His free grace, and the necessity of being justified in His sight byfaith only."[203]
Whitefield's fellowHoly Club member and spiritual mentor,Charles Wesley, reported an evangelical conversion in 1738.[202] In the same week, Charles' brother and future founder of Methodism,John Wesley was also converted after a long period of inward struggle. During this spiritual crisis, John Wesley was directly influenced by Pietism. Two years before his conversion, Wesley had traveled to the newly established colony of Georgia as a missionary for the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. He shared his voyage with a group ofMoravian Brethren led byAugust Gottlieb Spangenberg. The Moravians' faith and piety deeply impressed Wesley, especially their belief that it was a normal part of Christian life to have an assurance of one's salvation.[204] Wesley recounted the following exchange with Spangenberg on February 7, 1736:
[Spangenberg] said, "My brother, I must first ask you one or two questions. Have you the witness within yourself? Does the Spirit of God bear witness with your spirit that you are a child of God?" I was surprised, and knew not what to answer. He observed it, and asked, "Do you know Jesus Christ?" I paused, and said, "I know he is the Savior of the world." "True," he replied, "but do you know he has saved you?" I answered, "I hope he has died to save me." He only added, "Do you know yourself?" I said, "I do." But I fear they were vain words.[205]
Wesley finally received the assurance he had been searching for at a meeting of a religious society in London. While listening to a reading from Martin Luther's preface to theEpistle to the Romans, Wesley felt spiritually transformed:
About a quarter before nine, while [the speaker] was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken awaymy sins, evenmine, and savedme from the law of sin and death.[206]
Pietism continued to influence Wesley, who had translated 33 Pietist hymns from German to English. Numerous German Pietist hymns became part of the English Evangelical repertoire.[207] By 1737, Whitefield had become a national celebrity in England where his preaching drew large crowds, especially in London where theFetter Lane Society had become a center of evangelical activity.[208] Whitfield joined forces with Edwards to "fan the flame of revival" in theThirteen Colonies in 1739–40. Soon theFirst Great Awakening stirred Protestants throughout America.[202]
Evangelical preachers emphasized personal salvation and piety more than ritual and tradition. Pamphlets and printed sermons crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraging the revivalists.[209] The Awakening resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual and ceremony, the Great Awakening made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality. It reached people who were already church members. It changed their rituals, their piety and their self-awareness. To the evangelical imperatives of Reformation Protestantism, 18th century American Christians added emphases on divine outpourings of the Holy Spirit and conversions that implanted within new believers an intense love for God. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and forwarded the newly created Evangelicalism into the early republic.[210]
By the 1790s, theEvangelical party in the Church of England remained a small minority but were not without influence.John Newton andJoseph Milner were influential evangelical clerics. Evangelical clergy networked together through societies such as theEclectic Society in London and theElland Society in Yorkshire.[211] The OldDissenter denominations (theBaptists, Congregationalists andQuakers) were falling under evangelical influence, with the Baptists most affected and Quakers the least. Evangelical ministers dissatisfied with both Anglicanism and Methodism often chose to work within these churches.[212] In the 1790s, all of these evangelical groups, including the Anglicans, were Calvinist in orientation.[213]
Methodism (the "New Dissent") was the most visible expression of evangelicalism by the end of the 18th century. TheWesleyan Methodists boasted around 70,000 members throughout the British Isles, in addition to theCalvinistic Methodists in Wales and theCountess of Huntingdon's Connexion, which was organized under George Whitefield's influence. The Wesleyan Methodists, however, were still nominally affiliated with the Church of England and would not completely separate until 1795, four years after Wesley's death. The Wesleyan Methodist Church'sArminianism distinguished it from the other evangelical groups.[214]
The start of the 19th century saw an increase inmissionary work and many of the major missionary societies were founded around this time (seeTimeline of Christian missions). Both the Evangelical andhigh church movements sponsored missionaries.
TheSecond Great Awakening (which actually began in 1790) was primarily an American revivalist movement and resulted in substantial growth of the Methodist and Baptist churches.Charles Grandison Finney was an important preacher of this period.
In Britain in addition to stressing the traditional Wesleyan combination of "Bible, cross, conversion, and activism", the revivalist movement sought a universal appeal, hoping to include rich and poor, urban and rural, and men and women. Special efforts were made to attract children and to generate literature to spread the revivalist message.[216]
"Christian conscience" was used by the British Evangelical movement to promote social activism. Evangelicals believed activism in government and the social sphere was an essential method in reaching the goal of eliminating sin in a world drenched in wickedness.[217] The Evangelicals in theClapham Sect included figures such asWilliam Wilberforce who successfully campaigned for the abolition of slavery.
John Nelson Darby of the Plymouth Brethren was a 19th-century Irish Anglican minister who devised moderndispensationalism, an innovative Protestant theological interpretation of the Bible that was incorporated in the development of modern Evangelicalism.Cyrus Scofield further promoted the influence of dispensationalism through the explanatory notes to hisScofield Reference Bible. According to scholar Mark S. Sweetnam, who takes a cultural studies perspective, dispensationalism can be defined in terms of its Evangelicalism, its insistence on the literal interpretation of Scripture, its recognition of stages in God's dealings with humanity, its expectation of the imminent return of Christ to rapture His saints, and its focus on both apocalypticism andpremillennialism.[222]
After 1910 theFundamentalist movement dominated Evangelicalism in the early part of the 20th century; the Fundamentalists rejected liberal theology and emphasized the inerrancy of the Scriptures.
After the Scopes trial in 1925,Christian Century wrote of "Vanishing Fundamentalism".[229] In 1929 Princeton University, once the bastion of conservative theology, added several modernists to its faculty, resulting in the departure ofJ. Gresham Machen and a split in thePresbyterian Church in the United States of America.
Evangelicalism began to reassert itself in the second half of the 1930s. One factor was the advent of the radio as a means of mass communication. When [Charles E. Fuller] began his "Old Fashioned Revival Hour" on October 3, 1937, he sought to avoid the contentious issues that had caused fundamentalists to be characterized as narrow.[230]
One hundred forty-seven representatives from thirty-four denominations met from April 7 through 9, 1942, inSt. Louis, Missouri, for a "National Conference for United Action among Evangelicals." The next year six hundred representatives in Chicago established theNational Association of Evangelicals (NAE) withHarold Ockenga as its first president. The NAE was partly a reaction to the founding of theAmerican Council of Christian Churches (ACCC) under the leadership of the fundamentalistCarl McIntire. The ACCC in turn had been founded to counter the influence of theFederal Council of Churches (later merged into theNational Council of Churches), which fundamentalists saw as increasingly embracing modernism in itsecumenism.[231] Those who established the NAE had come to view the name fundamentalist as "an embarrassment instead of a badge of honor."[232]
Evangelical revivalist radio preachers organized themselves in theNational Religious Broadcasters in 1944 in order to regulate their activity.[233] With the founding of the NAE, American Protestantism was divided into three large groups—the fundamentalists, the modernists, and the new evangelicals, who sought to position themselves between the other two.
In 1947, Harold Ockenga coined the termneo-evangelicalism to identify a movement distinct from fundamentalism. The neo-evangelicals had three broad characteristics that distinguished them from the conservative fundamentalism of the ACCC:
They encouraged engagement in social concerns;
They promoted high standards of academic scholarship; and
They rejected the ecclesiastical separatism promoted by McIntire,[234] often pursuing collaboration with others through parachurch organizations.[235]
Each of these characteristics took concrete shape by the mid-1950s. In 1947Carl F. H. Henry's bookThe Uneasy Conscience of Fundamentalism called on evangelicals to engage in addressing social concerns:
[I]t remains true that the evangelical, in the very proportion that the culture in which he lives is not actually Christian, must unite with non-evangelicals for social betterment if it is to be achieved at all, simply because the evangelical forces do not predominate. To say that evangelicalism should not voice its convictions in a non-evangelical environment is simply to rob evangelicalism of its missionary vision.[236]
In the same yearFuller Theological Seminary was established with Ockenga as its president and Henry as the head of its theology department.
The strongest impetus, however, was the development of the work ofBilly Graham. In 1951, with producer Dick Ross, he founded the film production companyWorld Wide Pictures.[237] Graham had begun his career with the support of McIntire and fellow conservativesBob Jones Sr. andJohn R. Rice. However, in broadening the reach of his London crusade of 1954, he accepted the support of denominations that those men disapproved of. When he went even further in his 1957 New York crusade, conservatives strongly condemned him and withdrew their support.[238][239] According to William Martin:
The New York crusade did not cause the division between the old Fundamentalists and the New Evangelicals; that had been signaled by the nearly simultaneous founding of the NAE and McIntire's American Council of Christian Churches 15 years earlier. But it did provide an event around which the two groups were forced to define themselves.[240]
A fourth development—the founding ofChristianity Today (CT) with Henry as its first editor—was strategic in giving neo-evangelicals a platform to promote their views and in positioning them between the fundamentalists and modernists. In a letter to Harold Lindsell, Graham said thatCT would:
plant the evangelical flag in the middle of the road, taking a conservative theological position but a definite liberal approach to social problems. It would combine the best in liberalism and the best in fundamentalism without compromising theologically.[241]
In the United Kingdom,John Stott (1921–2011) andMartyn Lloyd-Jones (1899–1981) emerged as key leaders in Evangelical Christianity.
The charismatic movement began in the 1960s and resulted in the introduction of Pentecostal theology and practice into many mainline denominations. New charismatic groups such as theAssociation of Vineyard Churches andNewfrontiers trace their roots to this period (see alsoBritish New Church Movement).
The closing years of the 20th century saw controversialpostmodern influences entering some parts of Evangelicalism, particularly with theemerging church movement. Also controversial is the relationship between spiritualism and contemporary military metaphors and practices animating many branches of Christianity but especially relevant in the sphere of Evangelicalism.Spiritual warfare is the latest iteration in a long-standing partnership between religious organization andmilitarization, two spheres that are rarely considered together, although aggressive forms of prayer have long been used to further the aims of expanding Evangelical influence. Major moments of increased political militarization have occurred concurrently with the growth of prominence of militaristic imagery in evangelical communities. This paradigmatic language, paired with an increasing reliance on sociological and academic research to bolster militarized sensibility, serves to illustrate the violent ethos that effectively underscores militarized forms of evangelical prayer.[243]
According to a 2011Pew Forum study on global Christianity, 285,480,000 or 13.1 percent of all Christians are Evangelicals.[244]: 17 These figures do not include the Pentecostalism and Charismatic movements. The study states that the category "Evangelicals" should not be considered as a separate category of "Pentecostal and Charismatic" categories, since some believers consider themselves in both movements where their church is affiliated with an Evangelical association.[244]: 18
In 2015, theWorld Evangelical Alliance is "a network of churches in 129 nations that have each formed an Evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a world-wide identity, voice, and platform to more than 600 million Evangelical Christians".[245][246] The Alliance was formed in 1951 by Evangelicals from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally.
According toSébastien Fath ofCNRS, in 2016, there are 619 million Evangelicals in the world, one in four Christians.[247] In 2017, about 630 million, an increase of 11 million, including Pentecostals.[248]
Operation World estimates the number of Evangelicals at 545.9 million, which makes for 7.9 percent of the world's population.[249] From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelicals grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam.[250] According to Operation World, the Evangelical population's current annual growth rate is 2.6 percent, still more than twice the world's population growth rate.[249]
In the 21st century, there are Evangelical churches active in many African countries. They have grown especially since independence came in the 1960s,[251] the strongest movements are based onPentecostal beliefs. There is a wide range of theology and organizations, including some international movements.
InNigeria theEvangelical Church Winning All (formerly "Evangelical Church of West Africa") is the largest church organization with five thousand congregations and over ten million members. It sponsors three seminaries and eight Bible colleges, and 1600 missionaries who serve in Nigeria and other countries with the Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS). There have been serious confrontations since 1999 between Muslims and Christians standing in opposition to the expansion of Sharia law in northern Nigeria. The confrontation has radicalized and politicized the Christians. Violence has been escalating.[252][clarification needed]
InKenya, mainstream Evangelical denominations have taken the lead[dubious –discuss] in promoting political activism and backers, with the smaller Evangelical sects of less importance.Daniel arap Moi was president 1978 to 2002 and claimed to be an Evangelical; he proved intolerant of dissent or pluralism or decentralization of power.[257]
Worship at the Word and Life Church inBoksburg, South Africa
TheBerlin Missionary Society (BMS) was one of four German Protestant mission societies active in South Africa before 1914. It emerged from the German tradition of Pietism after 1815 and sent its first missionaries to South Africa in 1834. There were few positive reports in the early years, but it was especially active 1859–1914. It was especially strong in the Boer republics. The World War cut off contact with Germany, but the missions continued at a reduced pace. After 1945 the missionaries had to deal with decolonization across Africa and especially with the apartheid government. At all times the BMS emphasized spiritual inwardness, and values such as morality, hard work and self-discipline. It proved unable to speak and act decisively against injustice and racial discrimination and was disbanded in 1972.[258]
In Mozambique, Evangelical Protestant Christianity emerged around 1900 from black migrants whose converted previously in South Africa. They were assisted by European missionaries, but, as industrial workers, they paid for their own churches and proselytizing. They prepared southern Mozambique for the spread of Evangelical Protestantism. During its time as a colonial power in Mozambique, the Catholic Portuguese government tried to counter the spread of Evangelical Protestantism.[260]
The East African Revival was a renewal movement within Evangelical churches in East Africa during the late 1920s and 1930s[261] that began at aChurch Missionary Society mission station in the Belgian territory ofRuanda-Urundi in 1929, and spread to: Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya during the 1930s and 1940s contributing to the significant growth of the church in East Africa through the 1970s and had a visible influence on Western missionaries who were observer-participants of the movement.[262][page needed]
Protestantism in Brazil largely originated withGerman immigrants and British and American missionaries in the 19th century, following up on efforts that began in the 1820s.[266]
In the late nineteenth century, while the vast majority of Brazilians were nominal Catholics, the nation was underserved by priests, and for large numbers their religion was only nominal.[citation needed] The Catholic Church in Brazil was de-established in 1890, and responded by increasing the number of dioceses and the efficiency of its clergy. Many Protestants came from a large German immigrant community, but they were seldom engaged in proselytism and grew mostly by natural increase.
Methodists were active along with Presbyterians and Baptists. The Scottish missionaryRobert Reid Kalley, with support from theFree Church of Scotland, moved to Brazil in 1855, founding the first Evangelical church among the Portuguese-speaking population there in 1856. It was organized according to the Congregational policy as the Igreja Evangélica Fluminense; it became the mother church of Congregationalism in Brazil.[267] TheSeventh-day Adventists arrived in 1894, and the YMCA was organized in 1896. The missionaries promoted schools colleges and seminaries, including a liberal arts college in São Paulo, later known as Mackenzie, and an agricultural school inLavras. The Presbyterian schools in particular later became the nucleus of the governmental system. In 1887 Protestants in Rio de Janeiro formed a hospital. The missionaries largely reached a working-class audience, as the Brazilian upper-class was wedded either to Catholicism or to secularism. By 1914, Protestant churches founded by American missionaries had 47,000 communicants, served by 282 missionaries. In general, these missionaries were more successful than they had been in Mexico, Argentina or elsewhere in Latin America.[268]
There were 700,000 Protestants by 1930, and increasingly they were in charge of their own affairs. In 1930, the Methodist Church of Brazil became independent of the missionary societies and elected its own bishop. Protestants were largely from a working-class, but their religious networks help speed their upward social mobility.[269][270][unreliable source?]
Baptist worship service in Brazil
Protestants accounted for fewer than 5 percent of the population until the 1960s but grew exponentially by proselytizing and by 2000 made up over 15 percent of Brazilians affiliated with a church. Pentecostals and charismatic groups account for the vast majority of this expansion.
Pentecostal missionaries arrived early in the 20th century. Pentecostal conversions surged during the 1950s and 1960s, when native Brazilians began founding autonomous churches. The most influential includedBrasil Para o Cristo (Brazil for Christ), founded in 1955 by Manoel de Mello. With an emphasis on personal salvation, on God's healing power, and on strict moral codes these groups have developed broad appeal, particularly among the booming urban migrant communities. In Brazil, since the mid-1990s, groups committed to uniting black identity, antiracism, and Evangelical theology have rapidly proliferated.[271] Pentecostalism arrived in Brazil with Swedish and American missionaries in 1911. it grew rapidly but endured numerous schisms and splits. In some areas the EvangelicalAssemblies of God churches have taken a leadership role in politics since the 1960s. They claimed major credit for the election ofFernando Collor de Mello as president of Brazil in 1990.[272]
According to the 2000 census, 15.4 percent of the Brazilian population was Protestant. Recent research conducted by theDatafolha institute shows that 25 percent of Brazilians are Protestants, of which 19 percent are followers of Pentecostal denominations. The 2010 census found out that 22.2 percent were Protestant at that date. Protestant denominations saw a rapid growth in their number of followers since the last decades of the 20th century.[273] They are politically and socially conservative, and emphasize that God's favor translates into business success.[274] The rich and the poor remained traditional Catholics, while most Evangelical Protestants were in the new lower-middle class – known as the "C class" (in a A–E classification system).[275]
Chesnut argues that Pentecostalism has become "one of the principal organizations of the poor", for these churches provide the sort of social network that teach members the skills they need to thrive in a rapidly developing meritocratic society.[276]
One large Evangelical church that originated from Brazil is theUniversal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD), a neo‐Pentecostal denomination begun in 1977. It now has a presence in many countries, and claims millions of members worldwide.[277]
Protestants remained a small portion of the population until the late-twentieth century, when various Protestant groups experienced a demographic boom that coincided with the increasing violence of the Guatemalan Civil War. Two former Guatemalan heads of state, GeneralEfraín Ríos Montt andJorge Serrano Elías have been practicing Evangelical Protestants, as is Guatemala's former President,Jimmy Morales.[278][279] General Montt, an Evangelical from the Pentecostal tradition, came to power through a coup. He escalated the war against leftist guerrilla insurgents as a holy war against atheistic "forces of evil".[280]
American pastor Johannes Maas preaching inAndhra Pradesh, India in 1974. Spreading therevival is an essential part of work done by evangelical missionaries.
Evangelical Christianity came to China through Protestant missionaries in the 19th century. Starting in 1907, with the Manchurian Revival, evangelicalism grew through native preachers with homegrown traditions.[281]
Counting the number of Christians in China presents numerous difficulties.[282] French researcher Sebastian Fath has estimated that there are 66 million evangelicals in mainland China as of 2020.[283] Showing the issues in counting, a 2023 survey showed only a total of 18 million Protestant adults.[282]
Protestant missionary activity in Asia was most successful in Korea. American Presbyterians and Methodists arrived in the 1880s and were well received. Between 1910 and 1945, when Korea was a Japanese colony, Christianity became in part an expression of nationalism in opposition to Japan's efforts to enforce the Japanese language and the Shinto religion.[284] In 1914, out of 16 million people, there were 86,000 Protestants and 79,000 Catholics; by 1934, the numbers were 168,000 and 147,000. Presbyterian missionaries were especially successful.[285] Since the Korean War (1950–53), many Korean Christians have migrated to the U.S., while those who remained behind have risen sharply in social and economic status. Most Korean Protestant churches in the 21st century emphasize their Evangelical heritage. Korean Evangelicalism is characterized by theological conservatism[clarification needed] coupled with an emotional revivalist[clarification needed] style. Most churches sponsor revival meetings once or twice a year. Missionary work is a high priority, with 13,000 men and women serving in missions across the world, putting Korea in second place just behind the US.[286]
Gwacheon Presbyterian Church in South Korea
Sukman argues that since 1945, Protestantism has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernists.[287][288] It has been a powerful force[dubious –discuss] supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and emulation[dubious –discuss] of the United States, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and to theauthoritarianism of North Korea.[289][unreliable source?]
South Korea has been referred as an "evangelical superpower" for being the home to some of the largest and most dynamic Christian churches in the world; South Korea is also second to the U.S. in the number of missionaries sent abroad.[290][291][292]
According to 2015 South Korean census, 9.7 million or 19.7 percent of the population described themselves as Protestants, many of whom belong to Presbyterian churches shaped by Evangelicalism.[293]
According to the 2010 census, 2.68 percent of Filipinos are Evangelicals. ThePhilippine Council of Evangelical Churches (PCEC), an organization of more than seventy Evangelical and Mainline Protestant churches, and more than 210 para-church organizations in the Philippines, counts more than 11 million members as of 2011.[294]
In 2019, it was reported that Evangelicalism in France was growing, and a new Evangelical church was built every 10 days and now counts 700,000 followers across France.[295]
John Wesley (1703–1791) was an Anglican cleric and theologian who, with his brother Charles Wesley (1707–1788) and fellow cleric George Whitefield (1714–1770), founded Methodism. After 1791 the movement became independent of the Anglican Church as the "Methodist Connection". It became a force in its own right, especially among the working class.[296]
TheClapham Sect was a group of Church of England evangelicals and social reformers based inClapham, London; they were active 1780s–1840s).John Newton (1725–1807) was the founder. They are described by the historian Stephen Tomkins as "a network of friends and families in England, with William Wilberforce as its center of gravity, who were powerfully bound together by their shared moral and spiritual values, by their religious mission and social activism, by their love for each other, and by marriage".[297]
Evangelicalism was a major force in the Anglican Church from about 1800 to the 1860s. By 1848 when an evangelicalJohn Bird Sumner became Archbishop of Canterbury, between a quarter and a third of all Anglican clergy were linked to the movement, which by then had diversified greatly in its goals and they were no longer considered an organized faction.[298][299][300]
The Church Triumphant Global inCroydon, United Kingdom
In the 21st century there are an estimated 2 million Evangelicals in the UK.[301] According to research performed by the Evangelical Alliance in 2013, 87 percent of UK evangelicals attend Sunday morning church services every week and 63 percent attend weekly or fortnightly small groups.[302] An earlier survey conducted in 2012 found that 92 percent of evangelicals agree it is a Christian's duty to help those in poverty and 45 percent attend a church which has a fund or scheme that helps people in immediate need, and 42 percent go to a church that supports or runs a foodbank. 63 percent believe in tithing, and so give around 10 percent of their income to their church, Christian organizations and various charities.[303] 83 percent of UK evangelicals believe that the Bible has supreme authority in guiding their beliefs, views and behavior and 52 percent read or listen to the Bible daily.[304] TheEvangelical Alliance, formed in 1846, was the first ecumenical evangelical body in the world and works to unite evangelicals, helping them listen to, and be heard by, the government, media and society.
Since the 1970s, the number of Evangelicals and Evangelical congregations has grown strongly in Switzerland. Population censuses suggest that these congregations saw the number of their members triple from 1970 to 2000, qualified as a "spectacular development" by specialists.[305] SociologistsJörg Stolz and Olivier Favre show that the growth is due to charismatic and Pentecostal groups, while classical evangelical groups are stable and fundamentalist groups are in decline.[306] A quantitative national census on religious congregations reveals the important diversity of evangelicalism in Switzerland.[307]
Worship service at the Baptist Church inLancaster, CaliforniaSocially conservative evangelical Protestantism plays a major role in theBible Belt, an area covering almost all of the Southern United States. Evangelicals form a majority in the region.
By the late 19th to early 20th century, most American Protestants were Evangelicals. A bitter divide had arisen between the more liberal-modernist mainline denominations and the fundamentalist denominations, the latter typically consisting of Evangelicals. Key issues included the truth of the Bible—literal or figurative, and teaching of evolution in the schools.[308]
During and after World War II, Evangelicals became increasingly organized. There was a great expansion of Evangelical activity within the United States, "a revival of revivalism".Youth for Christ was formed; it later became the base forBilly Graham's revivals. The National Association of Evangelicals formed in 1942 as a counterpoise to the mainline Federal Council of Churches. In 1942–43, the Old-Fashioned Revival Hour had a record-setting national radio audience.[309][page needed] With this organization, though, fundamentalist groups separated from Evangelicals.
According to aPew Forum on Religion and Public Life study, Evangelicals can be broadly divided into three camps: traditionalist, centrist, and modernist.[310] A 2004 Pew survey identified that while 70.4 percent of Americans call themselves "Christian", Evangelicals only make up 26.3 percent of the population, while Catholics make up 22 percent and mainline Protestants make up 16 percent.[311] Among the Christian population in 2020, mainline Protestants began to outnumber Evangelicals.[312][313][314]
Evangelicals have been socially active throughout US history, a tradition dating back to theabolitionist movement of theAntebellum period and theprohibition movement.[315] As a group, evangelicals are most often associated with theChristian right. However, a large number ofblack self-labeled Evangelicals, and a small proportion of liberal white self-labeled Evangelicals, gravitate towards theChristian left.[316][317]
People in the movement may also be called "exvies". The termprodigals is sometimes used for exvangelicals by people who remain evangelical.[331]
Many exvangelicals attribute their departure to experiences of anti-LGBTQ beliefs and practices,misogyny, andracism in evangelicalism, to skepticism toward the Church's moral and social teachings, to a personal crisis of faith, and/or to sexual abuse in a religious setting.[328][332][333]
^Danker, Frederick William, ed. (1957).A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and other Early Christian Literature (3rd ed.). The University of Chicago Press.
^Livingstone, Elizabeth A (2005).The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (3rd ed. rev ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 583.ISBN0-19-280290-9.
^Gerstner, John H. (1975)."The Theological Boundaries of Evangelical Faith". InWoodbridge, John D.;Wells, David F. (eds.).The Evangelicals. Nashville: Abingdon Press. pp. 21–36.ISBN0-687-12181-7.Despite the dominant usage ofeuangellismos in the New Testament, its derivative, evangelical, was not widely or controversially employed until the Reformation period. Then it came into prominence with Martin Luther precisely because he reasserted Paul's teaching on theeuangellismos as the indispensable message of salvation. Its light, he argued, was hidden under a bushel of ecclesiastical authority, tradition, and liturgy. The essence of the saving message for Luther was justification by faith alone, the article by which not only the church stands or falls but each individual as well.Erasmus,Thomas More, andJohannes Eck denigrated those who accepted this view and referred to them as 'evangelicals.'
^abPeter Terrell,Harper Collins German Unabridged Dictionary, 4th ed., (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, Inc., 1999), 273sub loco.
^Gove, Philip Babcock, ed. (1971).Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield, MA: G & C Merriam.ISBN978-0-87779-101-0.evangelical [...] 5 [...] characterized by or reflecting a missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose [...] the rise and fall of evangelical fervor [sic] within the Socialist movement –Time Lit. Supp.>
^Kidd, Thomas S. (September 24, 2019).Who Is an Evangelical?. Yale University Press. p. 4.ISBN978-0-300-24141-9.What does it mean to be evangelical? The simple answer is that evangelical Christianity is thereligion of the born again.
^Yates, Arthur S. (2015).The Doctrine of Assurance: With Special Reference to John Wesley. Wipf and Stock Publishers.ISBN9781498205047.Writing to Arthur Bedford on 4th August 1738, Wesley says: 'That assurance of which alone I speak, I should not choose to call an assurance of salvation, but rather (with the Scriptures) the assurance of faith. . . . I think the Scriptural words are ...
^Worthen 2014, p. 4: "A logical place to start is to ask Christians who call themselves evangelical what they believe. The trouble is that evangelicals differ widely in how they interpret and emphasize 'fundamental' doctrines. Even the 'born again experience,' supposedly the quintessence of evangelicalism, is not an ironclad indicator. Some evangelicals have always viewed conversion as an incremental process rather than an instantaneous rebirth (and their numbers may be increasing)."
^"By Water and the Spirit: A United Methodist Understanding of Baptism".The United Methodist Church. RetrievedAugust 2, 2007.John Wesley retained the sacramental theology which he received from his Anglican heritage. He taught that in baptism a child was cleansed of the guilt of original sin, initiated into the covenant with God, admitted into the church, made an heir of the divine kingdom, and spiritually born anew. He said that while baptism was neither essential to nor sufficient for salvation, it was the "ordinary means" that God designated for applying the benefits of the work of Christ in human lives. On the other hand, although he affirmed the regenerating grace of infant baptism, he also insisted upon the necessity of adult conversion for those who have fallen from grace. A person who matures into moral accountability must respond to God's grace in repentance and faith. Without personal decision and commitment to Christ, the baptismal gift is rendered ineffective. Baptism as Forgiveness of Sin. In baptism God offers and we accept the forgiveness of our sin (Acts 2:38). With the pardoning of sin which has separated us from God, we are justified—freed from the guilt and penalty of sin and restored to right relationship with God. This reconciliation is made possible through the atonement of Christ and made real in our lives by the work of the Holy Spirit. We respond by confessing and repenting of our sin, and affirming our faith that Jesus Christ has accomplished all that is necessary for our salvation. Faith is the necessary condition for justification; in baptism, that faith is professed. God's forgiveness makes possible the renewal of our spiritual lives and our becoming new beings in Christ. Baptism as New Life. Baptism is the sacramental sign of new life through and in Christ by the power of the Holy Spirit. Variously identified as regeneration, new birth, and being born again, this work of grace makes us into new spiritual creatures (2 Corinthians 5:17). We die to our old nature which was dominated by sin and enter into the very life of Christ who transforms us. Baptism is the means of entry into new life in Christ (John 3:5; Titus 3:5), but new birth may not always coincide with the moment of the administration of water or the laying on of hands. Our awareness and acceptance of our redemption by Christ and new life in him may vary throughout our lives. But, in whatever way the reality of the new birth is experienced, it carries out the promises God made to us in our baptism.
^William H. Brackney,Historical Dictionary of the Baptists, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2021, p. 7, 173–174
^Henrik Enroth, Douglas Brommesson,Global Community?: Transnational and Transdisciplinary Exchanges, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, USA, 2015, p. 125
^Timothy J. Demy PhD, Paul R. Shockley PhD,Evangelical America: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Religious Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2017, p. 105
^Brad Christerson, Richard Flory,The Rise of Network Christianity, Oxford University Press, USA, 2017, p. 58
^Walter A. Elwell,Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Baker Academic, USA, 2001, pp. 370, 778
^John H. Y. Briggs,A Dictionary of European Baptist Life and Thought, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2009, p. 53
^William K. Kay,Pentecostalism: A Very Short Introduction, OUP Oxford, UK, 2011, p. 81
^Walter A. Elwell,Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Baker Academic, USA, 2001, p. 171
^Brian Stiller,Evangelicals Around the World: A Global Handbook for the 21st Century, Thomas Nelson, USA, 2015, p. 210
^Brian Stiller,Evangelicals Around the World: A Global Handbook for the 21st Century, Thomas Nelson, USA, 2015, p. 117
^Mark Husbands, Timothy Larsen,Women, Ministry and the Gospel: Exploring New Paradigms, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2007, p. 230
^Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon,Encyclopedia of Women and Religion in North America, Volume 1, Indiana University Press, USA, 2006, p. 294
^Erich Geldbach,Baptists Worldwide: Origins, Expansions, Emerging Realities, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2022, p. 110
^Lisa Stephenson,Dismantling the Dualisms for American Pentecostal Women in Ministry, BRILL, Leyde, 2011, p. 46
^Larry G. Murphy, J. Gordon Melton, Gary L. Ward,Encyclopedia of African American Religions, Routledge, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2013, p. LXXIV
^Erich Geldbach,Baptists Worldwide: Origins, Expansions, Emerging Realities, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2022, p. 111.
^Lisa Stephenson,Dismantling the Dualisms for American Pentecostal Women in Ministry, BRILL, Leyde, 2011, p. 55.
^Franklin M. Segler, Randall Bradley,Christian Worship: Its Theology and Practice, B&H Publishing Group, USA, 2006, p. 207
^Greg Dickinson,Suburban Dreams: Imagining and Building the Good Life, University of Alabama Press, USA, 2015, p. 144
^Jeanne Halgren Kilde,When Church Became Theatre: The Transformation of Evangelical Architecture and Worship in Nineteenth-century America, Oxford University Press, USA, 2005, p. 159, 170, 188
^D. A. Carson,Worship: Adoration and Action: Adoration and Action, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2002, p. 161
^Jeanne Halgren Kilde,Sacred Power, Sacred Space: An Introduction to Christian Architecture and Worship, Oxford University Press, USA, 2008, p. 193
^Harold W. Turner,From Temple to Meeting House: The Phenomenology and Theology of Places of Worship, Walter de Gruyter, Germany, 1979, p. 258
^Justin G. Wilford,Sacred Subdivisions: The Postsuburban Transformation of American Evangelicalism, NYU Press, USA, 2012, p. 78
^Anne C. Loveland, Otis B. Wheeler, From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History, University of Missouri Press, USA, 2003, p. 2
^Peter W. Williams,Houses of God: Region, Religion, and Architecture in the United States, University of Illinois Press, USA, 2000, p. 125
^Murray Dempster, Byron D. Klaus, Douglas Petersen,The Globalization of Pentecostalism: A Religion Made to Travel, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2011, p. 210
^Mark A. Lamport,Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South, Volume 2, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2018, p. 32
^Anne C. Loveland, Otis B. Wheeler, From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History, University of Missouri Press, USA, 2003, p. 149
^Helmuth Berking, Silke Steets, Jochen Schwenk,Religious Pluralism and the City: Inquiries into Postsecular Urbanism, Bloomsbury Publishing, UK, 2018, p. 78
^George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport,Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States, Volume 5, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2016, p. 1359
^Cameron J. Anderson,The Faithful Artist: A Vision for Evangelicalism and the Arts, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2016, p. 124
^Doug Jones,Sound of Worship, Taylor & Francis, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2013, p. 90
^William H. Brackney,Historical Dictionary of the Baptists, Scarecrow Press, USA, 2009, p. 61
^Wade Clark Roof,Contemporary American Religion, Volume 1, Macmillan, UK, 2000, p. 49
^Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley,The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, USA, 2005, p. 163
^Allan Heaton Anderson,An Introduction to Pentecostalism: Global Charismatic Christianity, Cambridge University Press, UK, 2013, p. 104
^Brian Stiller,Evangelicals Around the World: A Global Handbook for the 21st Century, Thomas Nelson, USA, 2015, p. 328
^Mark A. Lamport,Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South, Volume 2, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2018, p. 364
^William H. Brackney,Historical Dictionary of the Baptists, Scarecrow Press, USA, 2009, p. 402
^Daniel E. Albrecht,Rites in the Spirit: A Ritual Approach to Pentecostal/Charismatic Spirituality, Sheffield Academic Press, UK, 1999, p. 124
^Walter A. Elwell,Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Baker Academic, USA, 2001, p. 236–239
^Kevin M. Taylor,American Evangelicals and Religious Diversity: Subcultural Education, Theological Boundaries, and the Relativization of Tradition, Information Age Publishing, USA, 2006, p. 34
^James Findlay,Agency, Denominations, and the Western Colleges, 1830–1860 dans Roger L. Geiger,The American College in the Nineteenth Century, Vanderbilt University Press, USA, 2000, p. 115
^Timothy J. Demy PhD, Paul R. Shockley PhD,Evangelical America: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Religious Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2017, p. 206
^Mark A. Noll,The New Shape of World Christianity: How American Experience Reflects Global Faith, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2009, p. 45
^George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport,Encyclopedia of Christian Education, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2015, p. 348
^Randall Herbert Balmer,Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 190
^Council for Christian Colleges & Universities,AboutArchived October 5, 2021, at theWayback Machine, cccu.org, USA, retrieved November 2, 2023
^George Thomas Kurian, Mark A. Lamport,Encyclopedia of Christian Education, Volume 3, Rowman & Littlefield, USA, 2015, p. 819
^Randall Herbert Balmer,Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 40
^Edger, Kailla (2012). "Evangelicalism, Sexual Morality, and Sexual Addiction: Opposing Views and Continued Conflicts".Journal of Religion and Health.51 (1):162–178.doi:10.1007/s10943-010-9338-7.ISSN0022-4197.PMID20182916.
^John DeLamater, Rebecca F. Plante,Handbook of the Sociology of Sexualities, Springer, USA, 2015, p. 351
^Kathleen J. Fitzgerald, Kandice L. Grossman,Sociology of Sexualities, SAGE Publications, USA, 2017, p. 166
^Robert Woods,Evangelical Christians and Popular Culture: Pop Goes the Gospel, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2013, p. 44
^David K. Clark, Robert V. Rakestraw,Readings in Christian Ethics: Issues and Applications, Baker Academic, USA, 1994, p. 162
^Mark D. Regnerus,Forbidden Fruit : Sex & Religion in the Lives of American Teenagers, Oxford University Press, USA, 2007, p. 115
^Hilde Løvdal Stephens,Family Matters: James Dobson and Focus on the Family's Crusade for the Christian Home, University of Alabama Press, USA, 2019, p. 95-97
^Sara Moslener,Virgin Nation: Sexual Purity and American Adolescence, Oxford University Press, USA, 2015, p. 14
^Timothy J. Demy PhD, Paul R. Shockley PhD,Evangelical America: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Religious Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2017, p. 371
^ Amisah Zenabu Bakuri,Religious Sensibilities in Pursuit of Sexual Well-Being: African Diasporic Communities in the Netherlands, Berghahn Books, USA, 2024, p. 148
^"Some notable fundamentalist conservative evangelical television and radio speakers frequently blame gays in America for an assortment of social problems, including terrorism (…)" in Roger E. Olson,The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology, Westminster John Knox Press, USA, 2004, p. 315
^Jeffrey S. Siker,Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia, Greenwood Publishing Group, USA, 2007, p. 114
^Ralph R. Smith, Russel R. Windes,Progay/Antigay: The Rhetorical War Over Sexuality, SAGE Publications, USA, 2000, p. 29
^David L. Balch, Muddling Thought: The Church and Sexuality / Homosexuality by Mark G. Toulouse, Homosexuality, Science, and the "Plain Sense" of Scripture, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2007, p . 28
^Stephen Hunt,Contemporary Christianity and LGBT Sexualities, Routledge, UK, 2016, p. 40-41
^Randall Herbert Balmer,Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 29
^Quentin J. Schultze, Robert Herbert Woods Jr.,Understanding Evangelical Media: The Changing Face of Christian Communication, InterVarsity Press, USA, 2009, p. 164
^Randall Herbert Balmer,Encyclopedia of Evangelicalism: Revised and expanded edition, Baylor University Press, USA, 2004, p. 353.
^Timothy J. Demy PhD, Paul R. Shockley PhD,Evangelical America: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Religious Culture, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2017, p. 224
^abChristian Scholar's Review, Volume 27.Hope College. 1997. p. 205.This was especially true of proto-evangelical movements like the Quakers, organized as the Religious Society of Friends by George Fox in 1668 as a group of Christians who rejected clerical authority and taught that the Holy Spirit guided
^Quaker History, Volumes 94–95. Friends Historical Association. 2005. p. 46.Emma Malone, active in the evangelical Quaker community in Cleveland, co-founded (with her husband) the Christian Workers Training School. This school helped to train the leadership of evangelical Quakers
^Roger E. Olson,The Westminster Handbook to Evangelical Theology, Westminster John Knox Press, USA, 2004, p. 172
^Peter Beyer,Religion in the Process of Globalization, Ergon, Germany, 2001, p. 261
^Eric C. Miller,The Political Legacy of Progressive EvangelicalsArchived April 11, 2021, at theWayback Machine, religionandpolitics.org, USA, October 27, 2015 : "In relative terms, these characteristics and their usual adherence to traditionally orthodox doctrines do make evangelicals more theologically conservative than liberal Protestants".
^Harris, Harriet A. (1998).Fundamentalism and Evangelicals. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 58–59.ISBN978-0-19-826960-1. RetrievedOctober 24, 2017.The overriding implication of Fundamentalism is that conservative evangelicals are in fact fundamentalist but that they reject the term because of its pejorative connotations: 'By what term would "fundamentalists" prefer to be called? The term favored at present, at least in Great Britain, is "conservative evangelical"'.
^Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, Susan D. Rose,Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism, Routledge, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2013, p. 25, 27, 29, 31
^W. Glenn Jonas Jr.,The Baptist River: Essays on Many Tributaries of a Diverse Tradition, Mercer University Press, USA, 2008, p. 125: "Independents assert that the Bible is a unified document containing consistent propositional truths. They accept the supernatural elements of the Bible, affirm that it is infallible in every area of reality, and contend that it is to be interpreted literally in the vast majority of cases. Ultimately, they hold not merely to the inerrancy of Scripture, but to the infallibility of their interpretation of Scripture. The doctrine of premillennialism serves as a case in point. Early on in the movement, Independents embraced premillennialism as the only acceptable eschatological view. The BBU made the doctrine a test of fellowship. When Norris formed his Premillennial Missionary Baptist Fellowship (1933), he made premillennialism a requirement for membership. He held this doctrine to be the only acceptable biblical position, charging conventionism with being postmillennial in orientation."
^"Evangelical".Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.).Oxford University Press. (Subscription orparticipating institution membership required.) – "As a distinct party designation, the term came into general use, in England, at the time of the Methodist revival; and it may be said, with substantial accuracy, to denote the school of theology which that movement represents, though its earlier associations were rather with the Calvinistic than the Arminian branch of the movement. In the early part of the 19th cent. the words 'Methodist' and 'Evangelical' were, by adversaries, often used indiscriminately, and associated with accusations of fanaticism and 'puritanical' disapproval of social pleasures. The portion of the 'evangelical' school which belongs to the Anglican church is practically identical with the 'Low Church' party. In the Church of Scotland during the latter part of the 18th and the early part of the 19th cent. the two leading parties were the 'Evangelical' and the 'Moderate' party."
^Puzynin (2011, p. 21): "Noll points out that the crucial spiritual emphasis of the High-Church was its stress on 'primitive Christianity' [...]. However, it seems more logical to consider 'Primitivism' as a separate framework characteristic of the Victorian era [...]."
^Snead, Jennifer (2010), "Print, Predestination, and the Public Sphere: Transatlantic Evangelical Periodicals, 1740–1745",Early American Literature,45 (1):93–118,doi:10.1353/eal.0.0092,S2CID161160945.
^Stout, Harold 'Harry' (1991),The Divine Dramatist: George Whitefield and the Rise of Modern Evangelicalism.
^Bebbington, David W (January 2002), "The Evangelical Revival in Britain in the Nineteenth Century",Kyrkohistorisk Arsskrift, pp. 63–70.
^Bebbington, David W (2007), "The Evangelical Conscience",Welsh Journal of Religious History, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 27–44.
^Winn, Christian T. Collins (2007).From the Margins: A Celebration of the Theological Work of Donald W. Dayton. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 115.ISBN9781630878320.In addition to these separate denominational groupings, one needs to give attention to the large pockets of the Holiness movement that have remained within the United Methodist Church. The most influential of these would be the circles dominated by Asbury College and Asbury Theological Seminary (both in Wilmore, KY), but one could speak of other colleges, innumerable local campmeetings, the vestiges of various local Holiness associations, independent Holiness oriented missionary societies and the like that have had great impact within United Methodism. A similar pattern would exist in England with the role of Cliff College within Methodism in that context.
^Bebbington, David W (1996), "The Holiness Movements in British and Canadian Methodism in the Late Nineteenth Century",Proceedings of the Wesley Historical Society, vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 203–28
^Sawyer, M. J. (May 25, 2004)."Wesleyan and Keswick Models of Sanctification". Bible.org. RetrievedSeptember 30, 2020.With Keswick one finds a different situation than with the Holiness Movement. Whereas Wesleyan holiness theology is traceable directly to Wesley and has clearly identifiable tenets, Keswick is much more amorphous and comes in many varieties from the strict Keswick of a Major Ian Thomas, John Hunter, Alan Redpath and the Torchbearers fellowship to the milder Keswick of Campus Crusade For Christ and Moody Bible Institute and other respected Evangelical educational institutions. Whereas Holiness theology has tended to dominate in Arminian circles, Keswick has tended to dominate American Evangelicalism of a more Calvinistic bent. Indeed Packer asserts that it has become standard in virtually all of Evangelicalism except confessional Reformed and Lutheran.
^Hayford, Jack W.; Moore, S. David (June 27, 2009).The Charismatic Century: The Enduring Impact of the Azusa Street Revival. FaithWords.ISBN978-0-446-56235-5.Evangelist D.L. Moody was a proponent of the Kewsick movement along with others, including Hannah Whital Smith, whose bookA Christian's Secret of a Happy Life is still read today by thousands. R.A. Torrey, an associate of Moody whose influence was rapidly increasing, championed Keswick's ideals and utilized the term "Baptism of the Holy Spirit" in reference to the experience. Keswick views had a significant inflience on A.B. Simpson, founder of the Christian Missionary Alliance, which became a denomination by that name.
^Sweetnam, Mark S (2010), "Defining Dispensationalism: A Cultural Studies Perspective",Journal of Religious History,34 (2):191–212,doi:10.1111/j.1467-9809.2010.00862.x.
^Anne C. Loveland, Otis B. Wheeler, From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History, University of Missouri Press, USA, 2003, p. 35
^Stephen J. Hunt,Handbook of Megachurches, Brill, Leyde, 2019, p. 50
^Bebbington, David W (2005),Dominance of Evangelicalism: The Age of Spurgeon and Moody
^Findlay, James F (1969),Dwight L. Moody: American Evangelist, 1837–1899.
^Hoffecker, W. Andrew (1981),Piety and the Princeton Theologians, Nutley: Presbyterian & Reformed, v.
^Mark Ward Sr.,The Electronic Church in the Digital Age: Cultural Impacts of Evangelical Mass Media, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2015, p. 104, 231
^"Vanishing Fundamentalism".Christian Century. Vol. 4, no. 3. June 24, 1926. p. 799.
^Fuller, Daniel (1972).Give the Winds a Mighty Voice: The Story of Charles E. Fuller. Waco, TX: Word Books. p. 140.OCLC680000513.
^Billy Graham to Harold Lindsell, January 25, 1955, Harold Lindsell papers, Billy Graham Center Archive, Collection 192; quoted in Marsden,Reforming Fundamentalism, p. 158.
^Martin Marty states, "To find foils on the church front, evangelicals have to exaggerate the power of the World Council of Churches and almost invent power for the National Council of Churches." Marty, "The Years of the Evangelicals."Christian Century (1989) February 15, 1989, pp. 171–174.
^Pakendorf, Gunther (2011), "A Brief History of the Berlin Mission Society in South Africa",History Compass,9 (2):106–18,doi:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2009.00624.x.
^Leonard, Émil-G (1963),O Protestantismo Brasileiro [Brazilian Protestantism] (in Portuguese), São Paulo: ASTE.
^Testa, Michael (1964). "Part 2: Portuguese Protestants in the Americas".Journal of Presbyterian History. The Apostle of Madeira.42 (4):244–71..
^Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1943),A history of the expansion of Christianity, vol. V: The great century in the Americas,Austral–Asia, and Africa: A.D. 1800 – A.D. 1914, pp. 120–3.
^Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1945),A history of the expansion of Christianity, vol. VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations, pp. 181–2.
^Braga, Erasmo; Trubb, Kenneth G (1932),The Republic of Brazil: A survey of the religious situation
^Burdick, John (2005), "Why is the Black Evangelical Movement Growing in Brazil?",Journal of Latin American Studies,37 (2):311–32,doi:10.1017/s0022216x05009028.
^Chesnut, R. Andrew (1999), "The Salvation Army or the Army's Salvation?: Pentecostal Politics in Amazonian Brazil, 1962–1992",Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 33–49.
^Birman, Patrícia; Leite, Márcia Pereira (2000), "Whatever Happened to What Used to Be the Largest Catholic Country in the World?",Daedalus,129 (2):271–90,JSTOR20027637.
^Jacob, CR; Hees, DR; Waniez, P; Brustlein, V (2003),Atlas da Filiação Religiosa e Indicadores Sociais no Brasil [Brazilian Religious Affiliation & Social Indicators Atlas] (in Portuguese), São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro: PUC-Rio, Edições Loyola,ISBN85-15-02719-4.
^Garrard-Burnett.Protestantism in Guatemala. pp. 138–61.
^Garrard-Burnett, Virginia (2011).Terror in the Land of the Holy Spirit: Guatemala under General Efrain Rios Montt 1982–1983. New York: Oxford University Press.
^Kane, Danielle; Park, Jung Mee (2009), "The Puzzle of Korean Christianity: Geopolitical Networks and Religious Conversion in Early Twentieth-Century East Asia",American Journal of Sociology,115 (2):365–404,doi:10.1086/599246,S2CID143736997.
^Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1945),A history of the expansion of Christianity, vol. VII: Advance through Storm: A.D. 1914 and after, with concluding generalizations, pp. 401–7.
^Ryu, Dae Young (2008), "The Origin and Characteristics of Evangelical Protestantism in Korea at the Turn of the Twentieth Century",Church History,77 (2):371–98,doi:10.1017/S0009640708000589,S2CID162153162.
^Sukman, Jang (2004). "Historical Currents and Characteristics of Korean Protestantism after Liberation".Korea Journal.44 (4):133–156.
^Stolz Jörg & Favre Olivier. 2019. Growth and Decline of Evangelicals, Fundamentalists, Pentecostals, and Charismatics in Switzerland 1970–2013. Journal for the scientific study of religion, 58: 604–625,https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12616.
^Monnot Christophe & Stolz Jörg. 2014. The Diversity of Religious Diversity. Using Census and NCS Methodology in Order to Map and Assess the Religious Diversity of a Whole Country. In: Giordan G., Pace E. (eds) Religious Pluralism. Springer, Cham.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06623-3_6Archived December 30, 2022, at theWayback Machine
^David P. King,God's Internationalists: World Vision and the Age of Evangelical Humanitarianism, University of Pennsylvania Press, USA, 2019, p. 47, 121
^Brian Steensland, Philip Goff,The New Evangelical Social Engagement, Oxford University Press USA, USA, 2014, p. 242-243
^Wendy Murray Zoba,The Beliefnet Guide To Evangelical Christianity, Three Leaves Press, USA, 2005, p. XX
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