Italian Communist Party Partito Comunista Italiano | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Abbreviation | PCI |
| Secretary |
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| President |
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| Founded | 21 January 1921; 104 years ago (21 January 1921)[a] |
| Dissolved | 3 February 1991; 34 years ago (1991-02-03) |
| Split from | Italian Socialist Party |
| Succeeded by |
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| Headquarters | Via delle Botteghe Oscure 4, Rome |
| Newspaper | l'Unità |
| Youth wing | Italian Communist Youth Federation |
| Membership(1947) | 2,252,446 |
| Ideology | |
| Political position | Left-wing |
| National affiliation |
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| European Parliament group |
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| International affiliation | |
| Colours | Red |
| Anthem | Bandiera Rossa ("Red Flag") |
| Party flag | |
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TheItalian Communist Party (Italian:Partito Comunista Italiano,PCI) was acommunist anddemocratic socialist political party in Italy. It was established inLivorno as theCommunist Party of Italy (Italian:Partito Comunista d'Italia,PCd'I) on 21 January 1921, when it seceded from theItalian Socialist Party (PSI),[1] under the leadership ofAmadeo Bordiga,Antonio Gramsci, andNicola Bombacci.[2] Outlawed during theItalian fascist regime, the party continued to operate underground and played a major role in theItalian resistance movement.[3] The party's peaceful and national road to socialism, or theItalian road to socialism,[4] the realisation of the communist project through democracy,[5] repudiating the use of violence and applying theConstitution of Italy in all its parts,[6] a strategy inaugurated underPalmiro Togliatti but that some date back to Gramsci,[7][8][9] would become the leitmotif of the party's history.[10]
Having changed its name in 1943, the PCI became the second largest political party of Italy afterWorld War II,[11] attracting the support of about a third of the vote share during the 1970s. At the time, it was the largestCommunist party in theWestern world, with peak support reaching 2.3 million members in 1947,[12] and peak share being 34.4% of the vote (12.6 million votes) in the1976 Italian general election.[3] The PCI was part of theConstituent Assembly of Italy and the Italian government from 1944 to 1947, when the United States ordered a removal from government of the PCI and PSI.[13][14] The PCI–PSI alliance lasted until 1956;[15] the two parties continued to govern at the local and regional level until the 1990s. Apart from the 1944–1947 years and occasional external support to theorganic centre-left (1960s–1970s), which included the PSI, the PCI always remained at the opposition in theItalian Parliament, with more accommodation as part of theHistoric Compromise of the 1970s, which ended in 1980, until its dissolution in 1991, not without controversy and much debate among its members.[3]
The PCI includedMarxist–Leninists andMarxist revisionists,[16] with a notablesocial-democratic faction being themiglioristi.[17][18] Under the leadership ofEnrico Berlinguer and the influence of themiglioristi in the 1970s and 1980s,[19] Marxism–Leninism was removed from the party statute[20] and the PCI adhered to theEurocommunist[21] trend, seeking independence from theSoviet Union[22] and moving into a democratic socialist direction.[23][24][25] In 1991, it was dissolved and re-launched as theDemocratic Party of the Left (PDS), which joined theSocialist International and theParty of European Socialists. The more radical members of the organisation formally seceded to establish theCommunist Refoundation Party (PRC).[3]
The roots of the PCI date back to 1921, when theI Congress of the Communist Party of Italy was held in Livorno on 21 January, following a split in theXVII Congress of the Italian Socialist Party. The split occurred after the Congress of Livorno refused to expel thereformist group as required by theCommunist International (Comintern). The main factions of the new party were L'Ordine Nuovo, based in Turin and led byAntonio Gramsci, and the Maximalist faction led byNicola Bombacci.Amadeo Bordiga was elected secretary of the new party.[26]
The party was officially founded as theCommunist Party of Italy – Section of the Communist International (Partito Comunista d'Italia – Sezione dell'Internazionale Comunista), since the Comintern was structured as a single world party according toVladimir Lenin's vision. In the1921 Italian general election, the party obtained 4.6% of the vote and 15 seats in the country'sChamber of Deputies. At the time, it was an active yet small faction within the Italian political left, which was strongly led by the PSI, while on the international level it wasSoviet-led.
During its 2nd Congress in 1922, the new party registered 43,000 members. This was in part due to the entrance of almost the whole Socialist Youth Federation (Federazione Giovanile Socialista). The party adopted a slim structure headed by a Central Committee of 15 members, five of whom were also in the Executive Committee (EC), namely Ambrogio Belloni, Nicola Bombacci, Amadeo Bordiga (EC),Bruno Fortichiari (EC),Egidio Gennari, Antonio Gramsci,Ruggero Grieco (EC), Anselmo Marabini,Francesco Misiano, Giovanni Parodi, Luigi Polano, Luigi Repossi (EC), Cesare Sessa, Ludovico Tarsia, and Umberto Terracini (EC).
Since its formation, the party strived to organise itself on some bases that were not a mere reproduction of the traditional parties' bases. It then took again some arguments that distinguished the battle within the PSI, namely the idea that it is necessary to form an environment fiercely hostile to bourgeois society and that is an anticipation of the future socialist society. The purpose of this was not considered utopian because already in this society, especially in production, some structures are born on future results. In the first years of the PCd'I, there was no official leader; the accepted leader, first of the faction/tendency and then of the party, was Bordiga (Left) of thecommunist left current. Leaders of the minority currents were Angelo Tasca (Right) and Gramsci (Centre).
As a territorial section of Comintern, the PCd'I adopted the same program, the same conception of the party and the same tactics adopted by the II Congress inMoscow of 1920. The official program, drawn up in ten points, began with the intrinsically catastrophic nature of the capitalist system and terminated with the extinction of the state. It follows in a synthetic way the model outlined by Lenin for theRussian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). For a while, this identity resisted, but the fast progress of the reaction in Europe produced a change of tactics in a democratic direction within the Bolshevik party and consequently within the Comintern. This happened in particular regarding the possibility, previously opposed, of an alliance with the social democratic and bourgeois parties. This provoked a tension in the party between the majority (Left) and the minority factions (the Right and the Centre) supported by the Comintern. The proposals of the Left were no longer accepted and the conflict between the factions became irremediable.
In 1923, some members of the party were arrested and put on trial for "conspiracy against the State". This allowed the intense activity of the Communist International to deprive the party's left-wing of authority and give control to the minority centre which had aligned with Moscow. In 1924–1925, the Comintern began a campaign ofBolshevisation, which forced each party to conform to the discipline and orders of Moscow. During the clandestine conference held in Como to ratify the party leadership in May 1924, 35 of the 45 federation secretaries, plus the secretary of the youth federation, voted for Bordiga's Left, four for Gramsci's Centre, and five for Tasca's Right.
Before the Lyon Congress in 1926, the Centre won almost all the votes in the absence of much of the Left, who were unable to attend as a result of fascist controls and lack of Comintern support. Recourse to the Comintern against this evident manoeuvre had little effect. The PCd'I as conceived by the Left terminated. The organisation continued with the support of the Comintern and a new structure and leadership. In 1922, the newspaperL'Ordine Nuovo was closed and in 1924 a new Centre newspaper,l'Unità, edited by Gramsci, was founded. The Left continued as a faction, principally functioning in exile. It published the newspaperBilan, a monthly theoretical bulletin.
In 1926, Bordiga and Gramsci were arrested and imprisoned on the island ofUstica. In 1927,Palmiro Togliatti was elected secretary in place of Gramsci. In 1930, Bordiga was expelled from the Comintern and accused ofTrotskyism. AfterJoseph Stalin dissolved the Communist International in 1943, the exiled members of the PCd'I in Moscow changed the party's name to the PCI on 15 May. Under this name, it reorganised in Italy and became a parliamentary party after the fall of Fascism.
The party and its militants were actively involved in the resistance toBenito Mussolini's regime through clandestine action. They were well prepared for clandestine activity because of the structure of their organisation, and the fact that they had been victims of systematic repression by the authorities; more than three quarters of the political prisoners between 1926 and 1943 were communists. Throughout the dictatorship, the party was able to maintain and feed a clandestine network, distribute propaganda leaflets and newspapers, and infiltrate fascist unions and youth organisations. In 1935, the party led a campaign against theSecond Italo-Ethiopian War.[27] The party and communist partisans, among others, then went on to play a major role in the resistance movement that led to thefall of the Fascist regime in Italy.[3]
On 15 May 1943, the party changed its official name to the Italian Communist Party (Partito Comunista Italiano), often shortened to PCI. This change was not surprising as PCI started being used as the party's acronym around 1924–1925. This name change also reflected a change in the Comintern's role—it increasingly became a federation of national communist parties. This trend accelerated after Lenin's death and its new name emphasised the party's shift from an international focus to an Italian one. At the time, it was a hotly contested issue for the two major factions of the party. On one side, the Leninist preferred the single world party as it was internationalist and strongly centralised, while on the other side the Italians wanted a party more tailored to their nation's peculiarities and more autonomy.
After the fall ofFascist Italy on 25 July 1943, the PCI returned to a formally legal status, playing a major role during the national liberation, known in Italy asResistenza (Resistance) and forming many partisan groups. In April 1944, after theSvolta di Salerno (Salerno's turning point), Togliatti, who had returned to Italy the month prior after 18 years of exile,[28] agreed to cooperate withKing Victor Emmanuel III and hisprime minister of Italy, the MarshalPietro Badoglio. After the turn, the PCI took part in every government during the national liberation and constitutional period from June 1944 to May 1947.[29] Their contribution to the new Italian democratic constitution was decisive. The Gullo decrees of 1944, named afterFausto Gullo, sought to improve social and economic conditions in the countryside.[30] During Badoglio andFerruccio Parri's cabinets, Togliatti served as theDeputy Prime Minister of Italy. During the Resistance, the PCI became increasingly popular, as the majority of partisans were communists. TheGaribaldi Brigades, promoted by the PCI, were among the more numerous partisan forces.[31]
The PCI took part in the1946 Italian general election and the1946 Italian institutional referendum, campaigning for a republic. In the election, the PCI was third, behindChristian Democracy (DC) and the PSI, gaining almost 19% of votes and electing 104 members of theConstituent Assembly of Italy.[32] The popular referendum resulted in the replacement of the monarchy with a republic,[33] after 54% of the votes were in favour and 46% against.[34][35]Luciano Canfora saw the Salerno Turn and 1944 as a rebirth of the PCI, and said "the PCI had gradually followed a path which required it, as a historical task, to occupy the space of social democracy in the Italian political panorama."[36]
As part of theMay 1947 crises, the PCI was excluded from government.Alcide De Gasperi, the DC leader and prime minister of Italy, was losing popularity, and feared that theleftist coalition would take power. While the PCI was growing particularly fast due to its organising efforts supporting sharecroppers inSicily,Tuscany, andUmbria, movements that were also bolstered by the reforms ofFausto Gullo, theItalian Minister of Agriculture.[37] On 1 May, the nation was thrown into crisis by thePortella della Ginestra massacre, in which eleven leftist peasants (including four children) were murdered at anInternational Workers' Day parade inPalermo bySalvatore Giuliano and his gang. In the political chaos that ensued, the United States government engineered the expulsion of all left-wing ministers from the cabinet on 31 May. The PCI would not have a national position in government again. De Gasperi did this under pressure from the United States Secretary of State,George Marshall, who had informed him thatanti-communism was a pre-condition for receiving American aid,[37][38] and AmbassadorJames Clement Dunn, who had directly asked de Gasperi to dissolve the parliament and remove the PCI.[39][40]
In the1948 Italian general election, the party joined the PSI in thePopular Democratic Front (FDP) but was defeated by the DC. The United States government provided support to anti-PCI groups in the election,[41] and argued that should the PCI win, theMarshall Plan and other aids could be terminated. It spent $10–20 million on anti-communist propaganda and other covert operations, much of it through theEconomic Cooperation Administration of the Marshall Plan, and then laundered through individual banks.[42] Fearful of the possible FDP's electoral victory, the British and American governments also undermined their campaign for legal justice by tolerating the efforts made by Italy's top authorities to prevent any of the allegedItalian war criminals from being extradited and taken to court.[43][44] The denial of Italian war crimes was backed up by the Italian state, academe, and media, re-inventing Italy as only a victim ofNazism and the post-warFoibe massacres.[43]
The party gained considerable electoral success during the following years and occasionally supplied external support to theOrganic centre-left governments, although it never directly joined a government. It successfully lobbiedFiat to set up theAvtoVAZ (Lada) car factory in theSoviet Union (1966). The party did best inEmilia-Romagna, Tuscany, and Umbria, where it regularly won the local administrative elections, and in some of the industrialised cities ofNorthern Italy. At the city government level during the course of the post-war period, the PCI demonstrated in cities likeBologna andFlorence their capacity for uncorrupt, efficient and clean government.[45] After the1975 Italian local elections, the PCI was the strongest force in nearly all of the municipal councils of the great cities.[46]
The Soviet Union's brutal suppression of theHungarian Revolution of 1956 created a split within the PCI.[47] The party leadership, includingPalmiro Togliatti andGiorgio Napolitano (who in 2006 becamePresident of Italy), regarded the Hungarian insurgents as counter-revolutionaries as reported at the time inl'Unità, the official PCI newspaper.Giuseppe Di Vittorio, chief of the communist trade unionItalian General Confederation of Labour (CGIL), repudiated the leadership position, as did prominent party memberAntonio Giolitti andItalian Socialist Party national secretaryPietro Nenni, a close ally of the PCI. Napolitano later hinted at doubts over the propriety of his decision.[48] He would eventually write inFrom the Communist Party to European Socialism. A Political Autobiography (Dal Pci al socialismo europeo. Un'autobiografia politica) that he regretted his justification of the Soviet intervention but quieted his concerns at the time for the sake of party unity and the international leadership ofSoviet Communism.[49] Giolitti and Nenni went on to split with the PCI over this issue. Napolitano became a leading member of themiglioristi faction within the PCI that promoted asocial-democratic direction in party policy.[50]
In the mid-1960s, theUnited States Department of State estimated the party membership to be approximately 1,350,000, or 4.2% of the working age population, making it the largest Communist party in per capita terms in the capitalist world at the time and the largest party at all in the whole of Western Europe with theSocial Democratic Party of Germany.[51] United States government sources said that the party was receiving $40–50 million per year from the Soviets when their investment in Italy was $5–6 million.[52] Although the PCI relied on Soviet financial assistance more than any other Communist party supported by Moscow, declassified information shows this to be exaggerated.[53]
According to the formerKGB archivistVasili Mitrokhin, Longo and other PCI leaders became alarmed at the possibility of a coup in Italy after the Athens Colonel coup in April 1967 that led to theGreek junta. These fears were not completely unfounded as there had been two attempted coups in Italy,Piano Solo in 1964 andGolpe Borghese in 1970, by military andneo-fascist groups. The PCI'sGiorgio Amendola formally requested Soviet assistance to prepare the party in case of such an event. The KGB drew up and implemented a plan to provide the PCI with its own intelligence and clandestine signal corps. From 1967 through 1973, PCI members were sent toEast Germany and Moscow to receive training in clandestine warfare and information gathering techniques by both theStasi and the KGB. Shortly before the1972 Italian general election, Longo personally wrote toLeonid Brezhnev asking for and receiving an additional $5.7 million in funding. This was on top of the $3.5 million that the Soviet Union gave the PCI in 1971. The Soviets also provided additional funding through the use offront organisations providing generous contracts to PCI members.[54]
In 1969,Enrico Berlinguer, the PCI deputy national secretary and later secretary general, took part in the international conference of the communist parties in Moscow, where his delegation disagreed with the official political line and refused to support the final report. Unexpectedly to his hosts, his speech challenged the communist leadership in Moscow. He refused to excommunicate theChinese Communist Party and directly told Brezhnev that theWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, which he called "the tragedy in Prague", had made clear the considerable differences within the communist movement on fundamental questions, such as national sovereignty, socialist democracy, and the freedom of culture. At the time, the PCI, which had absorbed the PSI's left-wing, theItalian Socialist Party of Proletarian Unity, so strengthening its leadership over the Italian left, was the largest communist party in acapitalist state, garnering 34.4% of the vote in the1976 Italian general election.
Relationships between the PCI and the Soviet Union gradually fell apart as the party moved away from Soviet obedience andMarxist–Leninist orthodoxy in the 1970s and 1980s and towardEurocommunism and theSocialist International. The PCI sought a collaboration with the socialist and Christian democracy parties, a policy known theHistoric Compromise. Thekidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro, the DC leader, by theRed Brigades in May 1978 put an end to any hopes of such a compromise. The compromise was largely abandoned as a PCI policy in 1981. TheProletarian Unity Party merged into the PCI in 1984.
During theYears of Lead, the PCI strongly opposed the terrorism and the Red Brigades, who in turn murdered or wounded many PCI members or trade unionists close to the PCI. According to Mitrokhin, the party asked the Soviets to pressure theStB, Czechoslovakia's State Security, to withdraw their support to the group, which Moscow was unable or unwilling to do.[54] This, along with theSoviet invasion of Afghanistan, led to a complete break with Moscow in 1979. In 1980, the PCI refused to participate in the international conference of Communist parties in Paris; cash payments to the PCI continued until 1984.[53]
Achille Occhetto became general secretary of the PCI in 1988. At a 1989 conference in a working-class section of Bologna, Occhetto stunned the party faithful with a speech heralding theRevolutions of 1989, a move now referred to in Italian politics as thesvolta della Bolognina (Bolognina turning point). The collapse of the Communist governments in the Eastern Europe led Occhetto to conclude that the era of Eurocommunism was over. Under his leadership, the PCI dissolved and refounded itself as theDemocratic Party of the Left, which branded itself as a progressive left-wing anddemocratic socialist party.[55][56] A third of the PCI membership, led byArmando Cossutta, refused to join the PDS, and instead seceded to form theCommunist Refoundation Party.[57]
In all its history, the PCI was particularly strong inCentral Italy, in the Red Regions ofEmilia-Romagna,Marche,Tuscany, andUmbria, as well as in the industrialised cities ofNorthern Italy. The party's municipal showcase wasBologna, which was held continuously by the PCI from 1945 onwards. Amongst other measures, the local PCI administration tackled urban problems with successful programmes of health for the elderly, nursery education and traffic reform,[58] while also undertaking initiatives in housing and school meal provisions.[59]
Communist administrations at a local level helped to aid new businesses while also introducing innovative social reforms. From 1946 to 1956, the Communist city council built 31 nursery schools, 896 flats, and 9 schools. Health care improved substantially, street lighting was installed, new drains and municipal launderettes were built and 8,000 children received subsidised school meals. In 1972, the then-mayor of Bologna,Renato Zangheri, introduced a new and innovative traffic plan with strict limitations for private vehicles and a renewed concentration on cheap public transport. Bologna's social services continued to expand throughout the early and mid-1970s. The city centre was restored, centres for the mentally sick were instituted to help those who had been released from recently closedpsychiatric hospitals, handicapped persons were offered training and found suitable jobs, afternoon activities for schoolchildren were made less mindless than the traditionaldoposcuola (after-school activities), and school programming for the whole day helped working parents.[46]
 | Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found onPhabricator and onMediaWiki.org. |
The electoral results of the PCI in general (Chamber of Deputies) andEuropean Parliament elections since 1946 are shown in the chart above.
| Election | Leader | Chamber of Deputies | Senate of the Republic | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Votes | % | Seats | +/– | Position | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | Position | ||
| 1921 | Amedeo Bordiga | 304,719 | 4.6 | 15 / 535 |  15 | 7th | No election | ||||
| 1924 | Antonio Gramsci | 268,191 | 3.6 | 19 / 535 | 4 | 6th | No election | ||||
| 1929 | Banned | 0 / 400 |  19 | – | No election | ||||||
| 1934 | Palmiro Togliatti | Banned | 0 / 400 |  0 | – | No election | |||||
| 1946 | 4,356,686 | 18.9 | 104 / 556 | 104 | 3th | No election | |||||
| 1948 | 8,136,637[b] | 31.0 | 130 / 574 | 26 | 2nd | 6,969,122[b] | 30.8 | 50 / 237 | 19 | 2nd | |
| 1953 | 6,120,809 | 22.6 | 143 / 590 | 13 | 2nd | 6,120,809 | 22.6 | 56 / 237 | 6 | 2nd | |
| 1958 | 6,704,454 | 22.7 | 140 / 596 | 3 | 2nd | 6,704,454 | 22.2 | 60 / 246 | 4 | 2nd | |
| 1963 | 7,767,601 | 25.3 | 166 / 630 | 26 | 2nd | 6,933,842 | 25.2 | 84 / 315 | 24 | 2nd | |
| 1968 | Luigi Longo | 8,557,404 | 26.9 | 177 / 630 | 11 | 2nd | 8,583,285 | 30.0 | 101 / 315 | 17 | 2nd |
| 1972 | Enrico Berlinguer | 9,072,454 | 27.1 | 179 / 630 | 2 | 2nd | 8,475,141 | 28.1 | 94 / 315 | 7 | 2nd |
| 1976 | 12,622,728 | 34.4 | 228 / 630 | 49 | 2nd | 10,640,471 | 33.8 | 116 / 315 | 22 | 2nd | |
| 1979 | 11,139,231 | 30.4 | 201 / 630 | 27 | 2nd | 9,859,004 | 31.5 | 109 / 315 | 7 | 2nd | |
| 1983 | 11,032,318 | 29.9 | 198 / 630 | 3 | 2nd | 9,579,699 | 30.8 | 107 / 315 | 2 | 2nd | |
| 1987 | Alessandro Natta | 10,254,591 | 26.6 | 177 / 630 | 24 | 2nd | 9,181,579 | 28.3 | 101 / 315 | 6 | 2nd |
| Election | Leader | Votes | % | Seats | +/– | Position | EP Group |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1979 | Enrico Berlinguer | 10,361,344 | 29.6 | 24 / 81 | 24 | 2nd | COM |
| 1984 | Alessandro Natta | 11,714,428 | 33.3 | 27 / 81 | 3 | 1st | |
| 1989 | Achille Occhetto | 9,598,369 | 27.6 | 22 / 81 | 5 | 2nd |
| Regions of Italy | |||||
| Election year | Votes | % | Seats | +/− | Leader |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1970 | 7,586,983 (2nd) | 27.9 | 200 / 720 | – | |
| 1975 | 10.148,723 (2nd) | 33.4 | 247 / 720 | 47 | |
| 1980 | 9,555,767 (2nd) | 31.5 | 233 / 720 | 14 | |
| 1985 | 9,686,140 (2nd) | 30.2 | 225 / 720 | 8 | |
| 1990 | 7,660,553 (2nd) | 24.0 | 182 / 720 | 43 | |
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)La rottura che ne seguì fu completa. Il Psi si staccò definitivamente da ogni legame e sudditanza con l'Urss ma contemporaneamente si ruppero anche la forte intesa e l'attività unitaria con il Pci, avviata a partire al Patto di unità d'azione stipulato a Parigi nel 1934 e poi rinnovato nel settembre 1943 e nell'ottobre 1946, e con il frontismo negli anni del dopoguerra. Saltò anche il Patto di consultazione, che in un primo momento sembrò poter sostituire il Patto d'unità d'azione, e prevalse il rifiuto di un'alleanza organica con il Pci per conquistare il governo in Italia: obiettivo che invece il Psi raggiunse con i governi di centro-sinistra negli anni Ottanta.[The ensuing break was complete. The PSI definitively detached itself from all ties and subjection to the USSR but at the same time the strong understanding and unitary activity with the PCI was also broken, initiated starting from the Pact of unity of Action stipulated in Paris in 1934 and then renewed in September 1943 and in October 1946, and with frontism in the post-war years. The Consultation pact, which at first seemed to be able to replace the Unity action pact, was also broken, and the refusal of an organic alliance with the PCI to conquer the government in Italy prevailed: an objective that the PSI instead achieved with centre-left governments in the 1980s.]
Einaudi annotava nel suo Diario di una cena a casa dell'Ambasciatore d'Italia in Unione Sovietica Quaroni, in cui si conveniva che gli Stati Uniti gli aiuti veri non li avrebbero concessi con i comunisti ancora al governo.[Einaudi noted in his Diary of a dinner at the home of the Italian Ambassador to the Soviet Union Quaroni, in which it was agreed that the United States would not grant real aid with the Communists still in government.]
{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).Edward Luttwak, interview: "[W]e estimated at the time they were getting $40–50 million a year at a time when we were putting $5–6 million into Italian politics.
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