| Cochineal | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Female (left) and male (right) cochineals | |
Scientific classification | |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Hemiptera |
| Suborder: | Sternorrhyncha |
| Family: | Dactylopiidae |
| Genus: | Dactylopius |
| Species: | D. coccus |
| Binomial name | |
| Dactylopius coccus Costa, 1835 | |
| Synonyms | |
Coccus cactiLinnaeus,1758 | |
Thecochineal (/ˌkɒtʃɪˈniːl,ˈkɒtʃɪniːl/KOTCH-in-EEL, -eel,US also/ˌkoʊtʃɪˈniːl,ˈkoʊtʃɪniːl/KOH-chin-;[1]Dactylopius coccus) is ascale insect in the suborderSternorrhyncha, from which the naturaldyecarmine is derived. A primarilysessileparasite native to tropical and subtropical South America through North America (Mexico and the SouthwestUnited States), this insect lives oncacti in the genusOpuntia, feeding on plant moisture and nutrients. The insects are found on the pads of prickly pear cacti, collected by brushing them off the plants, and dried.
The insect producescarminic acid that deters predation by other insects. Carminic acid, typically 17–24% of dried insects' weight, can be extracted from the body and eggs, then mixed with aluminium or calcium salts to make carmine dye, also known as cochineal. Today, carmine is primarily used as acolorant in food and in lipstick (E120 orNatural Red 4).
Carmine dye was used in the Americas for coloring fabrics and became an importantexport good in the16th century during thecolonial period. Production of cochineal is depicted in theCodex Osuna (1565).[2] After synthetic pigments and dyes such asalizarin were invented in the late 19th century, use of natural-dye products gradually diminished. Fears over the safety of artificial food additives renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again,[3] withPeru being the largest producer, followed byMexico,Chile,Argentina and theCanary Islands.[4]
Other species in the genusDactylopius can be used to produce "cochineal extract", and are extremely difficult to distinguish fromD. coccus, even for expert taxonomists; the scientific termD. coccus and the vernacular "cochineal insect" are sometimes used, intentionally or casually, and possibly with misleading effect, to refer to other species.[note 1]
The word cochineal is derived from the Frenchcochenille, derived from Spanishcochinilla, in turn derived from Latincoccinus, from Greekκόκκινοςkokkinos, "scarlet" fromκόκκοςkokkos (Latin equivalentcoccum) referring in this case either to the oak berry (actually the insects of the genusKermes) or to a red dye made from the crushed bodies thereof.[5][6][7] The related in sense wordkermes also refers to the source of the red Mediterranean dye also calledcrimson, which was used in Europe to color cloth red before cochineal was imported from the New World to Spain in the 1520s.[8] Some sources identify the Spanish source wordcochinilla as the word for "wood louse", which is a diminutive form ofcochino "pig".[9]
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Cochineal insects are soft-bodied, flat, oval-shaped scale insects. The females, wingless and about 5 mm (0.20 in) long, cluster on cactus pads. They penetrate the cactus with their beak-like mouthparts and feed on its juices, remaining immobile unless alarmed. After mating, the fertilised female increases in size and gives birth to tinynymphs. The nymphs secrete a waxy white substance over their bodies for protection from water loss and excessive sun. This substance makes the cochineal insect appear white or grey from the outside, though the body of the insect and its nymphs produces the red pigment, which makes the insides of the insect look dark purple. Adult males can be distinguished from females in that males have wings, and are much smaller.[10]
The cochineal disperses in the first nymph stage, called the "crawler" stage. The juveniles move to a feeding spot and produce long wax filaments. Later, they move to the edge of the cactus pad, where the wind catches the wax filaments and carries the insects to a new host. These individuals establish feeding sites on the new host and produce a new generation of cochineals.[11] Male nymphs feed on the cactus until they reach sexual maturity. At this time, they can no longer feed at all and live only long enough to fertilise theeggs.[12] They are, therefore, seldom observed.[11] In addition, females typically outnumber males due to environmental factors.[13]
Dactylopius coccus is native to tropical and subtropical South America and North America in Mexico, where their host cacti grow natively. They have been widely introduced to many regions where their host cacti also grow. About 200 species ofOpuntia cacti are known, and while it is possible to cultivate cochineal on almost all of them, the most common isOpuntia ficus-indica.[14]D. coccus has only been noted onOpuntia species, includingO. amyclaea,O. atropes,O. cantabrigiensis,O. brasilienis,O. ficus-indica,O. fuliginosa,O. jaliscana,O. leucotricha,O. lindheimeri,O. microdasys,O. megacantha,O. pilifera,O. robusta,O. sarca,O. schikendantzii,O. stricta,O. streptacantha, andO. tomentosa.[3] Feeding cochineals can damage and kill the plant. Other cochineal species feed on many of the sameOpuntia, and the wide range of hosts reported forD. coccus likely is because of the difficulty in distinguishing it from otherDactylopius species.[15]
Several natural enemies can reduce the population of the insects on hosts. Of all the predators, insects seem to be the most important group. Insects and their larvae such aspyralid moths (orderLepidoptera), which destroy the cactus, and predators such aslady bugs (Coleoptera), variousDiptera (such asSyrphidae andChamaemyiidae),lacewings (Neuroptera), and ants (Hymenoptera) have been identified, as well as numerousparasitic wasps. Many birds, human-commensal, rodents (especially rats), and reptiles, also prey on cochineal insects.[3]
Anopal cactus farm for the production of cochineal is traditionally known as anopalry.[16] The two methods of farming cochineal are traditional and controlled. Cochineals are farmed in the traditional method by planting infected cactus pads or infesting existing cacti with cochineals and harvesting the insects by hand. The controlled method uses small baskets calledZapotecnests placed on host cacti. The baskets contain clean, fertile females that leave the nests and settle on the cactus to await fertilization by the males. In both cases, the cochineals must be protected frompredation, cold, and rain. The complete cycle lasts three months, during which time the cacti are kept at a constant temperature of 27 °C (81 °F). At the end of the cycle, the new cochineals are left to reproduce or are collected and dried for dye production.[14]
To produce dye from cochineals, the insects are collected when they are around 90 days old. Harvesting the insects is labour-intensive, as they must be individually knocked, brushed, or picked from the cacti and placed into bags. The insects are gathered by small groups of collectors who sell them to local processors or exporters.[17]
In regions dependent on cochineal production,pest control measures are taken seriously. For small-scale cultivation, manual methods of control have proved to be the safest and most effective. For large-scale cultivation, advanced pest control methods have to be developed, including alternative bioinsecticides or traps withpheromones.[3]
Opuntia species, known commonly as prickly pears, were first brought toAustralia in an attempt to start a cochineal dye industry in 1788. CaptainArthur Phillip collected a number of cochineal-infested plants from Brazil on his way to establish the first European settlement at Botany Bay, part of which is nowSydney,New South Wales. At that time, Spain and Portugal had a worldwide cochineal dye monopoly via their New World colonial sources, and the British desired a source under their own control, as the dye was important to their clothing and garment industries; it was used to color the British soldiers'red coats, for example.[18] The attempt was a failure in two ways: the Brazilian cochineal insects soon died off, but the cacti thrived, eventually overrunning about 100,000 sq mi (259,000 km2) of eastern Australia.[19] The cacti were eventually brought under control in the 1920s by the deliberate introduction of a South American moth,Cactoblastis cactorum, the larvae of which feed on the cactus.[19]
The nopal pear has been traditionally eaten in parts of northern Ethiopia, where it is utilized more than cultivated. Carmine cochineal was introduced into northern Ethiopia early in the 2000s to be cultivated among farming communities. Foodsafe exported 2000 tons of dried carmine cochineal over 3 years.[20]
A conflict of interest among communities led to closure of the cochineal business in Ethiopia, but the insect spread and became a pest. Cochineal infestation continued to expand after the cochineal business had ended. Control measures were unsuccessful and by 2014 about 16,000 hectares (62 sq mi) of cactus land had become infested with cochineal.[21]
There has been a population ofDactylopius insects on prickly pear cactuses aroundCuyler Manor inUitenhage; several cochineal species were introduced to South Africa[when?], with use encouraged as a biocontrol for different invasive cactus plant species.[22]
| External videos | |
|---|---|
 "Cochinea Red Dye - The Use of Cochineal Beetles as Natural Fabric Dye in Chinchero, Peru", Quechua woman artisan |
Cochineal dyes are one of three groups of red insect dyes, all of which areanthraquinone derivatives. The major color components in their respective chemical structures arecarminic acid (in cochineal dyes),kermesic acid (inkermes dye) andlaccaic acids (inlac dye).[23]
Carminic acid is extracted from the female cochineal insects and is treated to producecarmine, which can yield shades of red such ascrimson andscarlet.[24] The dried body of the female insect is 14–26% carminic acid.[25]
Workers collect the female cochineal insects from their host plants.[4] The insects are killed by immersion in hot water or by exposure to sunlight, steam, or the heat of an oven. Each method produces a different color that results in the varied appearance of commercial cochineal.[26] The insects must be dried to about 30% of their original body weight before they can be stored without decaying.[17] It takes about 70,000 insects to make 1 pound (0.45 kilograms) of cochineal dye.[4]
The two principal forms of cochineal dye are cochineal extract, a coloring made from the raw dried and pulverised bodies of insects, and carmine, a more purified coloring made from the cochineal. To prepare carmine, the powdered insect bodies are boiled inammonia or asodium carbonate solution, the insoluble matter is removed by filtering, andalum is added to the clear salt solution of carminic acid to precipitate the redaluminium salt. Purity of color is ensured by the absence ofiron.Stannous chloride,citric acid,borax, orgelatin may be added to regulate the formation of the precipitate. For shades ofpurple,lime is added to the alum.[27][28]
Traditionally, cochineal was used for coloringfabrics. Cochineal dye was used by theAztec andMaya peoples of North and Central America as early as the second century BC.[29]: 12 [30] Inhabitants ofPeru have been producing cochineal dyes for textiles since early in the Middle Horizon period (600–1000 CE).[31] Cochineal dye was extensively used in thePre-Columbian era, often for ceremonial textiles and those worn by rulers.[29]: 12–25
The dye bonds best with animal fibers rather than plant fibers and was most effective for dying wool fromalpacas and otherCamelidae, rabbit fur, and feathers. It was also used on cottons and plant-based fabrics, to less effect. Some examples of early cloth have survived in extremely dry areas in Peru. In addition, the use of cochineal is literally illustrated in drawings on codices and maps. Production of cochineal dyes became well-developed underNazca culture, and beautiful examples of woven cloth colored by cochineal remain fromMoche andWari culture.[29]: 12–25 [32]
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![Pre-Columbian textile from Peru, c. 800-1300 AD[32]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fwikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aPa%25C3%25B1oHuariDeAlgod%25C3%25B3n.jpg)
Cochineal's importance is also indicated by its prominence in tribute lists such as theMatrícula de Tributos.[29]: 12–20 Eleven cities conquered byMoctezuma II in the 15th century paid a yearly tribute of 2000 decorated cotton blankets and 40 bags of cochineal dye each.[27]
Prior to the Spanish invasion, Aztecs also used cochineal pigments in their manuscripts. The 16th centuryFlorentine Codex contains a variety of illustrations with multiple variations of thered pigments. Specifically in the case ofachiotl (light red), technical analysis of the paint reveals multiple layers of the pigment although the layering of the pigment is not visible to the naked eye. Therefore, it proves that the process of applying multiple layers is more significant in comparison to the actual color itself. Furthermore, the process of layering the various hues of the same pigment on top of each other enabled the Aztec artists to create variations in the intensity of the subject matter. A bolder application of pigment draws the viewer's eye to the subject matter which commands attention and suggests a power of the viewer. A weaker application of pigment commands less attention and has less power. This would suggest that the Aztec associated the intensity of pigments with the idea of power and life.[33]
Pigments are insoluble finely ground particles which are mixed with a liquid to make a paint.[34] To be useful as a pigment, a substance should be insoluble in the vehicle with which it is mixed, in contrast to a dye which is soluble.[35] The activity of carmines can vary widely depending on their preparation and composition: they tend to be unstable and can vary in solubility depending onpH.[36][37]
Recipes for artists' use of crimson appear in many early painting and alchemical handbooks throughout the Middle Ages. Redlake pigments were known to be particularly unstable as early as the 1400s.[38][39] When cochineal lakes were introduced in Europe, artists soon found that they were notlight-fast. The paint turns brown and fades in sunlight, although it is somewhat more permanent if mixed with oil rather than water color.[40] As a result, carmine's use as a pigment was discouraged: its primary use was as a dye rather than in paints.[38][39]
"Beautiful and rich as are the colours prepared from cochineal, not one of them should ever find a place upon the palette of the artist. They all become brownish and ultimately almost disappear after a short exposure to sunlight or the more prolonged attack of strong diffused daylight",Arthur Herbert Church[38][41]
In Europe, there was no comparable red dye or pigment[dubious –discuss]. The closest color wasKermes (technically,crimson), one of the oldest organic pigments. Its key ingredient, kermesic acid, was also extracted from an insect,Kermes vermilio, which lives onQuercus coccifera oaks native to the Near East, and the European side of the Mediterranean Basin. Kermes was used as a dye and alaked pigment in ancient Egypt, Greece, Armenia and the Near East.[42]
TheSpanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in the 16th century introduced new colors to peoples on both sides of the Atlantic. The Spanish were quick to exploit the vibrant, intense color of cochineal for new trade opportunities.Carmine attained great status and value in Europe.[43][44]
During the colonial period, with the introduction of sheep to Latin America, the use of cochineal increased. It provided the most intense color and it set more firmly onwoolen garments compared to clothes made of materials of pre-Hispanic origin such ascotton oragave andyucca fibers. In general, cochineal is more successful on protein-based animal fibres (including silk) than plant-based material.[44]
Once the European market discovered the qualities of this product (grana fina), the demand for it increased dramatically.[44][43]Carmine became the region's second-most-valuable export next to silver.[45] The dyestuff was used throughout Europe and was so highly prized, its price was regularly quoted on the London and Amsterdam Commodity Exchanges (with the latter one beginning to record it in 1589).[43] By the 17th century cochineal was a commodity traded as far away as India.[44]
The production and the use of luxury colors and textiles were regulated in countries such as Spain and Italy.[29]: 45–46 Dyestuffs produced from the cochineal insect were used for dyeing the clothes ofkings,nobles, and theclergy.[44] In 1454,Pope Paul II officially changed the color of the robes worn byCatholic cardinals from "Cardinal's purple" to vibrant red. By 1558, their red robes would have been created with American cochineal.[29]: 45 By the 1600s, cochineal also gave the English "Redcoats" their distinctive officers' uniforms.[29]: 28–29 Carmine became strong competition for other colorants such asmadder root, kermes,Polish cochineal,Armenian cochineal,brazilwood, andTyrian purple.[46] It became the most important insect dye used in the production of hand-woven oriental rugs, almost completely displacinglac.[44] It was also used forhandicrafts, andtapestries.[47]
Spanish influence also changed the way in which Aztecs used pigments, particularly in their manuscripts. The use of cochineal in manuscripts was replaced by Spanish dyes likeminium andalizarin crimson.[33] The image of Moctezuma's death (seen to the right) uses both indigenous and Spanish pigments, and is therefore representative of the transition and influence between cultures.[citation needed]
During the colonial period in Latin America, many indigenous communities produced cochineal under a type of contract known as Repartimiento de Mercancías. This was a type of "contract forwarding" agreement, in which a trader lent money to producers in advance, with a "call option" to buy the product once it was harvested. Communities with a history of cochineal production and export have been found to have lower poverty rates and higher female literacy, but also smaller indigenous populations.[48]
In 1777, FrenchbotanistNicolas-Joseph Thiéry de Menonville, presenting himself as a botanizing physician, smuggled the insects and pads of theOpuntia cactus toSaint Domingue. This particular collection failed to thrive and ultimately died out, leaving the Mexican monopoly intact.[49] After theMexican War of Independence in 1810–1821, the Mexican monopoly on cochineal came to an end. Large-scale production of cochineal emerged, especially in Guatemala and the Canary Islands; it was also cultivated in Spain and North Africa.[44]
The demand for cochineal fell sharply in the middle of the 19th century, with the appearance of artificial dyes such asalizarin crimson. This caused a significant financial shock in Spain as a major industry almost ceased to exist.[45] The delicate manual labour required for the breeding of the insect could not compete with the modern methods of the new industry, and even less so with the lowering of production costs. The "tuna blood" dye (from the Mexican name for theOpuntia fruit) stopped being used and trade in cochineal almost totally disappeared in the course of the 20th century. For a time, the breeding of cochineal was done mainly for the purposes of maintaining the tradition rather than to satisfy any sort of demand.[47]
However, the product has become commercially valuable again.[24] One reason for the increasing interest in natural dyes is consumer concern over the possibility that some commercial synthetic red dyes and food colorings may be carcinogenic.[50] Being natural is not a guarantee of safety,[51] but studies show that cochineal is neither carcinogenic nor toxic. Cochineal does, however, have a slight potential to trigger an allergic reaction.[52][53]
Cochineal continues to be used as a fabric dye, acosmetics dye and as afood coloring.[4] It is also used inhistology as a preparatory stain for the examination of tissues and carbohydrates.[54]
As of 2005,[needs update] Peru produced 200 tons of cochineal dye per year and the Canary Islands produced 20 tons per year.[24][17] Chile and Mexico also export cochineal.[3] France is believed to be the world's largest importer, andJapan andItaly also import the insect. Much of these imports are processed and re-exported to other developed economies.[17] As of 2005,[needs update] the market price of cochineal was betweenUS$50 and 80 per kilogram,[needs update][14] while synthetic raw food dyes are available at prices as low as $10–20 per kilogram.[55]
Natural carmine dye used in food and cosmetics can render the product unacceptable tovegetarian orvegan consumers. ManyMuslims consider carmine-containing food forbidden (haraam) because the dye is extracted from insects and all insects except thelocust are haram inIslam.[56]Jews also avoid food containing this additive, though it is nottreif, and some authorities allow its use because the insect is dried and reduced to powder.[57]
Cochineal is one of the few water-soluble colorants to resist degradation with time. It is one of the most light- and heat-stable and oxidation-resistant of all the natural organic colorants and is even more stable than many synthetic food colors.[58] The water-soluble form, cochineal extract, is used in a wide variety of beverages; the insoluble form, carmine, is used in a wide variety of products. They can be found inmeat,sausages, processedpoultry products (meat products cannot be colored in the United States unless they are labeled as such),surimi,marinades, alcoholic drinks, bakery products and toppings,cookies,desserts, icings, pie fillings,jams, preserves,gelatin desserts,juice beverages, varieties ofcheddar cheese and otherdairy products,sauces, and sweets.[58]
Carmine is considered safe enough for cosmetic use in the eye area.[59] A significant proportion of the insoluble carmine pigment produced is used in the cosmetics industry for hair- and skin-care products,lipsticks, face powders,rouges, and blushes.[58] A bright red dye and thestain carmine used in microbiology is often made from the carmine extract, too.[12] The pharmaceutical industry uses cochineal to colorpills andointments.[17]
Cochineal-colored wool and cotton continue to be important materials for Mexican folk art and crafts.[60][29] Some towns in theMexican state ofOaxaca continue to follow traditional practices of producing and using cochineal when making handmade textiles.[61]InGuatemala,Heifer International has partnered with local women who wished to reintroduce traditional artisanal practices of cochineal production and use.[62]
Because it has a complicated structure involving multiple chemical groups, it is very difficult to create a synthetic molecule for cochineal. In 1991, carminic acid was firstsynthesized in the laboratory by organic chemists.[63] In 2018, researchers genetically engineered the microbeAspergillus nidulans to produce carminic acid.[4][64]
In spite of the widespread use of carmine-based dyes in food and cosmetic products, a small number of people have been found to experienceoccupational asthma,food allergy and cosmetic allergies (such asallergic rhinitis andcheilitis),IgE-mediatedrespiratory hypersensitivity, and in rare casesanaphylactic shock.[65][66][67] In 2009, the FDA ruled that labels of cosmetics and food that include cochineal extract must include that information on their labels (under the name "cochineal extract" or "carmine").[68][69] In 2006, the FDA stated it found no evidence of a "significant hazard" to the general population.[70] In the EU, authorities list carmine as additive E 120 in thelist of EU-approved food additives.[71] An artificial, non-allergenic cochineal dye is labeled E 124.[65]
| Techniques |  | |
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| Types of dyes | ||
| Traditional textile dyes | ||
| History | ||
| Craft dyes | ||
| Reference | ||
