Climate change is the consequence of long-term alterations in theEarth's climate caused by the emission ofgreenhouse gases such ascarbon dioxide (CO2) andmethane (CH4). These gases can trap heat in the atmosphere, resulting inglobal warming and a heightened temperature on our planet. The activities carried out by humans, such as the utilization offossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), along with large-scale commercialagriculture anddeforestation, are accountable for the release of thesegreenhouse gases. The escalating temperatures and escalatingextreme heat conditions, uncertain and progressively unpredictable precipitation, and extreme weather provoke new challenges and exacerbate existing ones.^[1]

Namibia is located in the southwestern region of the African continent, lying between latitude 17°S and 29°S and longitude 11°E and 26°E. The country encompasses a land area of 825,418 km2 and boasts a coastline stretching 1,500 km along the South Atlantic Ocean.Namibia shares borders withAngola to the north,South Africa to the south,Botswana to the east, andZambia to the northeast. The country's climate is predominantlyarid, with theNamib Desert and theKalahari Desert occupying significant portions of the eastern and western territories, respectively.Aridity diminishes as one moves toward the central plateau regions and the great escarpment situated between the central plateau and theNamib Desert.^[2]Namibia's climate is characterized bypersistent droughts, unpredictable and varying rainfall patterns, substantial temperature fluctuations, and limited water resources.^[1][3][4][5]

The African continent is responsible for 2%-3% of globalgreenhouse gas emissions, thereby contributing toclimate change. In 2020,Namibia emitted 24.12 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent representing 0.05% of global emissions with a climate risk index of 107.^[6][7]Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions forNamibia in 2020 were 13,560.38 kt, representing a 25.69% increase compared to 2019, 2019 was 10,788.73 kt, indicating a 7.13% decline from 2018, 2018 was 11,616.69 kt, reflecting a 6.14% decrease from 2017, 2017 were 12,376.73 kt, showing a 0.47% increase from 201.^[8][9][10]

Köppen climate classification map for Namibia for 1980–2016

2071–2100 map underthe most intense climate change scenario. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely^[12][13][14]

The effects ofclimate change, both current and future, present significant risks to human health, welfare, and the natural environment.Namibia is experiencing clear indications of increasing temperatures.^[15] Over the past century, surface temperatures in Namibia have risen by 1.2degrees Celsius, and the frequency ofextreme temperatures has increased by 10% in the last four decades.Southern Africa, including Namibia, has warmed by approximately 0.8 degrees Celsius since 1900, and recent years have witnessed the highest temperatures on record since the 19th century.^[2] Projections indicate that summer temperatures may rise between 1 °C and 3.5 °C and winter temperatures between 1 °C and 4 °C within the period of 2046-2065. There has been a noticeable increase in the number of days exceeding 35 °C, contributing to the overall trend of rising maximumtemperatures. The evidence of climate change extends beyond surface temperature increases and encompasses changing precipitation patterns. However, attributing these changes to climate change in the context of Namibia's rainfall variability proves challenging. Records suggest that the frequency of bothdroughts andfloods has risen by approximately 18% on average over the last four decades when compared to previous periods. This multifaceted evidence underscores the urgency of addressing climate change and its impacts on Namibia's climate system.^[15] The mean annualtemperature forNamibia is 20.6 °C, with average monthlytemperatures ranging between 24 °C (November to March) and 16 °C (June, July).^[1]

Climate change is contributing to a global increase in temperatures, and this is also true for Namibia. The rising temperatures are resulting in higher rates ofevaporation, which in turn decreases the availability of surface water and worsens water scarcity within the country.^[16]Namibia heavily relies on rainfall to meet its water needs, especially in rural regions. However, climate change is modifying precipitation patterns, leading to more intense and unpredictable rainfall events. Consequently, these changes can cause flashfloods,erosion, and a decrease ingroundwater recharge, all of which greatly impact water resources.^[17] Additionally, Namibia has been experiencing prolonged droughts as a result of climate change. These droughts can deplete water reservoirs such as aquifers and severely affect the country'swater supply and sanitation systems. The coastal areas of Namibia are particularly vulnerable to rising sea levels, which can result in the intrusion ofsaltwater intofreshwater aquifers, further compromising the quality and availability of water resources.^[5][18]

Climate change is causing shifts in temperature andprecipitation patterns, resulting in decreased rainfall in Namibia. This decrease in rainfall affects the production ofstaple crops, leading tofood insecurity and impactingecosystems.^[1] Furthermore, climate change manifests in droughts and otherextreme weather events, which have a significant impact on natural ecosystems. These changing conditions are causing shifts inspecies andhabitats, thereby affectingbiodiversity.^[19] Particularly, Namibia's endemic species are highly vulnerable to climate change, as they face threats to their survival due to changing environmental conditions.^[19] Additionally, the reduced rainfall and increased temperatures brought about by climate change can result in severe water shortages, affecting both human communities and ecosystems in Namibia. Therefore, water policies and practices play a crucial role in maintaining the health of ecosystems. The impacts of climate change on water resources are interconnected with biodiversity and the well-being of ecosystems.^[20] As projected, Namibia is expected to experience a more rapid increase in temperatures compared to many other countries, leading to an increasing frequency of drought conditions. This exacerbates the stress onecosystems.^[2] Climate change has adverse effects on fish stocks and coastal livelihoods, further impacting natural ecosystems and the tourism industry in Namibia.^[3]

Climate change has had a significant impact onagriculture andlivestock inNamibia, resulting in consequences onfood security and thelivelihoods of manyNamibians. Due to climate change, Namibia is experiencing more frequent andsevere droughts, leading to decreased availability of water for agriculture and livestock. Consequently, this directly affects crop yields and the access to water forlivestock.^[3] The changing climate has also caused unpredictable rainfall patterns, making it challenging for farmers to predict the optimal times for planting and harvesting. This unpredictability can lead to lowercrop yields and decreasedagricultural productivity.^[20] Livestock farming plays a crucial role in Namibia's agriculture. However, climate change-related factors such as rising temperatures and the spread of diseases have a negative impact on livestock health and productivity.^[21][22] Therefore, livestock farmers adapt their practices to cope with these challenges.^[20] In order to mitigate the effects of climate change, Namibian farmers are increasingly adopting conservation agriculture practices.^[23][24] This approach involves minimizing soil disturbance, implementing cover crops, and implementingcrop rotation to enhancesoil health andwater retention, ultimately improving resilience to climate variability. Several projects, including those supported by theWorld Bank and theUnited Nations Development Programme (UNDP), are focused on promoting climate-resilient livestock systems, as well as enhancing traditional crops and livestock farming practices in Namibia. These initiatives aim to assist farmers in adapting to the changing climate and building resilience in their agricultural and livestock operations.^[25][26][27]

Climate change inNamibia has resulted in an upsurge of water andvector-borne diseases, causing a direct impact on the public's health and overall well-being.^[1] The effect of climate change on Namibia's economy and livelihoods is projected to be substantial, subsequently influencing people's health due to economic hardship and research reveals that 3.6 billion people are already living in areas highly susceptible to climate change. Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250,000 additional deaths per year, fromundernutrition,malaria,diarrhea, andheat stress alone.^[29] Specifically, the north-central regions ofNamibia are particularly susceptible to the consequences of climate change, exacerbated byenvironmental degradation andsocial vulnerability, which further contribute to health risks.^[30][31] Notably, organizations such as the Namibia Nature Foundation are actively engaged in combatting the effects of climate change on both human health and the environment.^[20]

Namibia has implemented climate change mitigation strategies through its National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (NCCSAP) from 2013 to 2020.^[32] These strategies encompass bothadaptation and mitigation efforts, with a focus on addressing the challenges posed by climate change in the country. Namibia's NCCSAP includes policies and actions aimed at adapting to the impacts of climate change. These measures assist communities and ecosystems in coping with the changing climate, such as enhancingwater resource management in Namibia's arid regions.^[32] The NCCSAP also outlines strategies to reducegreenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. These strategies may involve transitioning to cleaner and more sustainable energy sources and improving energy efficiency.^[32]Namibia's climate change policies align with the National Development Goals and Vision 2030, ensuring that climate action is integrated into the country's broader development agenda.^[33] The government is actively working to create a conducive environment forclimate change adaptation andmitigation, aiming to strengthen its policies and measures in this regard.^[34][35]

• Climate change in Africa
• Water supply and sanitation in Namibia
• Effects of climate change
• Economy of Namibia
• Agriculture in Namibia
• Geography of Namibia
• Health in Namibia

• Agriculture in Namibia
• Environmental issues in Namibia
• Water supply and sanitation in Namibia
• Climate change in Africa
• Geography of Namibia
• Health in Namibia
• Climate change by country

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