Pope Clement VII (Latin:Clemens VII;Italian:Clemente VII; bornGiulio di Giuliano de' Medici; 26 May 1478 – 25 September 1534) was head of theCatholic Church and ruler of thePapal States from 19 November 1523 to his death on 25 September 1534. Deemed "the most unfortunate of the popes", Clement VII's reign was marked by a rapid succession of political, military, and religious struggles—many long in the making—which had far-reaching consequences for Christianity and world politics.[3]
Elected in 1523 at the end of theItalian Renaissance, Clement came to the papacy with a high reputation as a statesman.[4] He had served with distinction as chief advisor toPope Leo X (1513–1521, his cousin),Pope Adrian VI (1522–1523), and commendably asgran maestro ofFlorence (1519–1523).[5][6][4] Assuming leadership at a time of crisis, with theProtestant Reformation spreading, the Church nearing bankruptcy, and largeforeign armies invading Italy, Clement initially tried to unite Christendom by making peace among the many Christian leaders then at odds.[7] He later attempted to liberate Italy from foreign occupation, believing that it threatened the Church's freedom.[3]
The complex political situation of the 1520s thwarted Clement's efforts.[8] Inheriting unprecedented challenges, includingMartin Luther's Protestant Reformation in Northern Europe; a vast power struggle in Italy between Europe's two most powerful kings,Charles V of theHoly Roman Empire andFrancis I of France, each of whom demanded that the Pope choose a side;Turkish invasions of Eastern Europe led bySuleiman the Magnificent. Clement's problems were exacerbated by souring relations with Charles V in 1527, which led to the violentSack of Rome, during which Clement was imprisoned. After escaping confinement in theCastel Sant'Angelo, Clement—with few economic, military, or political options remaining—compromised the Church's and the Papal States' independence by allying with his former enemy, Charles V.[3][4] However, his problems continued duringHenry VIII of England's contentious divorce, resulting inEngland breaking away from the Catholic Church.
In contrast to his tortured pontificate, Clement was personally respectable and devout, possessing a "dignified propriety of character", "great acquirements both theological and scientific", as well as "extraordinary address and penetration—Clement VII, in serener times, might have administered the Papal power with high reputation and enviable prosperity. But with all of his profound insight into the political affairs of Europe, Clement does not seem to have comprehended the altered position of the Pope" in relation to Europe's emerging nation-states and Protestantism.[9]
Giulio de' Medici's life began under tragic circumstances. On 26 April 1478—exactly one month before his birth—his father,Giuliano de Medici (brother ofLorenzo the Magnificent) was murdered in theFlorence Cathedral by enemies of his family, in what is now known as the "Pazzi conspiracy".[17] He was born illegitimately on 26 May 1478, in Florence; the exact identity of his mother remains unknown, although a plurality of scholars contend that it wasFioretta Gorini, the daughter of a professor, Antonio Gorini.[17][8] Giulio spent the first seven years of life with his godfather, the architectAntonio da Sangallo the Elder.[17]
Thereafter, Lorenzo the Magnificent raised him as one of his own sons, alongside his children Giovanni (the futurePope Leo X),Piero, andGiuliano.[18] Educated at thePalazzo Medici in Florence byhumanists likeAngelo Poliziano, and alongside prodigies likeMichelangelo, Giulio became an accomplished musician.[18][19] In personality he was reputed to be shy, and in physical appearance, handsome.[20]
Giulio's natural inclination was for the clergy, but his illegitimacy barred him from high-ranking positions in the Church. So Lorenzo the Magnificent helped him carve out a career as a soldier.[17] He was enrolled in theKnights of Rhodes, but also becameGrand Prior ofCapua.[17] In 1492, when Lorenzo the Magnificent died and Giovanni de' Medici assumed his duties as a cardinal, Giulio became more involved in Church affairs.[17] He studied canon law at theUniversity of Pisa, and accompanied Giovanni to theconclave of 1492, whereRodrigo Borgia was electedPope Alexander VI.[17]
Following the misfortunes of Lorenzo the Magnificent's firstborn son,Piero the Unfortunate, the Medici were expelled from Florence in 1494.[21] Over the next six years, Cardinal Giovanni and Giulio wandered throughout Europe together—twice getting arrested (first inUlm, and later inRouen). Each time Piero the Unfortunate bailed them out.[17] In 1500, both returned to Italy and concentrated their efforts on re-establishing their family in Florence. Both were present at theBattle of Ravenna in 1512, where Cardinal Giovanni was captured by the French but Giulio escaped; this led to Giulio becoming an emissary toPope Julius II.[22] That same year, with the assistance of Pope Julius and the Spanish troops ofFerdinand II of Aragon, the Medici retook control of Florence.[17]
In 1510, while the Medici were living near Rome, a servant in their household—identified in documents asSimonetta da Collevecchio—became pregnant, ultimately giving birth to a son,Alessandro de' Medici. Nicknamed "il Moro" ("the Moor") due to his dark complexion, Alessandro was officially recognized as the illegitimate son ofLorenzo II de Medici, but at the time and to this day, various scholars suggest that Alessandro was the illegitimate son of Giulio de' Medici.[23] The truth of his lineage remains unknown and debated.[24]
Regardless of his paternity, throughout Alessandro's brief life, Giulio—as Pope Clement VII—showed him great favoritism, elevating Alessandro overIppolito de Medici as Florence's first hereditary monarch, despite the latter's comparable qualifications.[25]
Giulio Cardinal de' Medici, left; with his cousinPope Leo X, center; and Luigi Cardinal de' Rossi, right; byRaphael, 1519
Giulio de' Medici appeared on the world stage in March 1513, at the age of 35,[2] when his cousin Giovanni de' Medici was elected Pope, taking the name Leo X. Pope Leo X reigned until his death on 1 December 1521.
"Learned, clever, respectable, and industrious",[attribution needed] Giulio de' Medici's reputation and responsibilities grew at a rapid pace, unusual even for the Renaissance.[8] Within three months of Leo X's election, he was namedArchbishop of Florence.[26]: 197 Later that autumn, all barriers to his attaining the Church's highest offices were removed by a papal dispensation declaring his birth legitimate. It stated that his parents had been betrothedper sponsalia de presenti (i.e. "wed according to the word of those present").[8] Whether or not this was true, it allowed Leo X to create himcardinal during the first papal consistory on 23 September 1513.[8] On 29 September, he was appointed Cardinal Deacon ofSanta Maria in Domnica—a position that had been vacated by the Pope.[2]
Cardinal Giulio's reputation during the reign of Leo X is recorded by contemporary Marco Minio, the Venetian ambassador to the Papal Court, who wrote in a letter to the Venetian Senate in 1519: "Cardinal de' Medici, the Pope'scardinal nephew, who is not legitimate, has great power with the Pope; he is a man of great competence and great authority; he resides with the Pope, and does nothing of importance without first consulting him. But he is returning to Florence to govern the city."[27]
While Cardinal Giulio was not officially appointed Vice-Chancellor of the Church (second-in-command) until 9 March 1517, in practice Leo X governed in partnership with his cousin from the beginning.[8] Initially, his duties centered primarily on administering Church affairs in Florence and conducting international relations. In January 1514,Henry VIII of England appointed himCardinal protector of England.[28] The following year,Francis I of France nominated him to becomeArchbishop of Narbonne, and in 1516 named him cardinal protector of France.[28] In a scenario typical of Cardinal Giulio's independent-minded statesmanship, the respective kings ofEngland andFrance, recognizing a conflict of interest in Giulio protecting both countries simultaneously, brought pressure to bear on him to resign his other protectorship; to their dismay, he refused.[22]
Cardinal Giulio's foreign policy was shaped by the idea ofla libertà d'Italia, which aimed to free Italy and the Church from French and Imperial domination.[22] This became clear in 1521, when a personal rivalry between King Francis I andHoly Roman Emperor Charles V boiled over into war in northern Italy.[29] Francis I expected Giulio, France's cardinal protector, to support him; but Giulio perceived Francis as threatening the Church's independence—particularly the latter's control ofLombardy, and his use of theConcordat of Bologna to control the Church in France. At the time, the Church wanted Emperor Charles V to combatLutheranism, then growing in Germany. So Cardinal Giulio negotiated an alliance on behalf of the Church, to support the Holy Roman Empire against France.[30] That autumn, Giulio helped lead a victorious Imperial-Papal army over the French in Milan and Lombardy.[30] While his strategy of shifting alliances to liberate the Church and Italy from foreign domination proved disastrous during his reign as Pope Clement VII, during the reign of Leo X it skillfully maintained a balance of power among the competing international factions seeking to influence the Church.[31]
Giulio de' Medici led numerous armed conflicts as a cardinal. Commenting on this, his contemporaryFrancesco Guicciardini wrote that Cardinal Giulio was better suited to arms than to the priesthood.[32] He served as papal legate to the army in a campaign against Francis I in 1515, alongside inventorLeonardo da Vinci.[33]
The Transfiguration, byRaphael, 1520. Commissioned by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici
Cardinal Giulio's other endeavors on behalf of Pope Leo X were similarly successful, such that "he had the credit of being the prime mover of papal policy throughout the whole of Leo's pontificate".[34] In 1513, he was member of theFifth Lateran Council, assigned the task of healing the schism caused byconciliarism.[22] In 1515, his "most significant act of ecclesiastical government" regulated prophetic preaching in the manner ofGirolamo Savonarola.[22] He later organized and presided over the Florentine Synod of 1517, where he became the first member of the Church to implement the reforms recommended by the Fifth Lateran Council.[34] These included prohibiting priests from carrying arms, frequenting taverns, and dancing provocatively – while urging them to attend weekly confession.[7] Similarly, Cardinal Giulio's artistic patronage was admired (e.g., his commissioningRaphael'sTransfiguration andMichelangelo'sMedici Chapel, among other works), particularly for what goldsmithBenvenuto Cellini later called its "excellent taste".[35]
Cardinal Giulio governed Florence between 1519 and 1523, following the death of its civic ruler,Lorenzo II de Medici, in 1519. There "he was permitted to assume almost autocratic control of State affairs", and "did very much to place public interests upon a firm and practical basis".[36] U.S.President John Adams later characterized Giulio's administration of Florence as "very successful and frugal".[5] Adams chronicles the cardinal as having "reduced the business of the magistrates, elections, customs of office, and the mode of expenditure of public money, in such a manner that it produced a great and universal joy among the citizens".[5][7]
On the death of Pope Leo X in 1521, Adams writes there was a "ready inclination in all of the principal citizens [of Florence], and a universal desire among the people, to maintain the state in the hands of the Cardinal de' Medici; and all this felicity arose from his good government, which since the death of the Duke Lorenzo, had been universally agreeable."[5]
When Pope Leo X died on 1 December 1521, Cardinal Giulio was "widely expected to succeed him"—but instead, during the conclave of 1522, the College of Cardinals elected a compromise candidate,Adrian VI of the Netherlands.[33] Of why this happened, historianPaul Strathern writes, "it was common knowledge that [Cardinal Giulio] had been Leo X's most able adviser, as well as manager of the pope's financial affairs. The fact that Leo X had blithely ignored his cousin's advice, on so many occasions, was widely seen as being responsible for the plight of the papacy—not the influence of Cardinal Giulio de' Medici. On the contrary, Cardinal Giulio appeared to be everything that Leo X was not: he was handsome, thoughtful, saturnine and gifted with good taste. Despite this, many remained steadfast in their opposition to his candidacy."[33]
In conclave, Cardinal Giulio controlled the largest voting bloc, but his enemies forced the election to a stalemate.[37] Among them were CardinalFrancesco Soderini, a Florentine whose family had lost a power struggle to the Medici "and held a grudge"; CardinalPompeo Colonna, a Roman nobleman who wanted to become Pope himself; and a group of French cardinals who "were unwilling to forget Leo X's treachery to their King".[37][33]
Realizing that his candidacy was in jeopardy, "Cardinal Giulio now chose to make an astute tactical move. He declared modestly that he was unworthy of such high office; instead, he suggested the little-known Dutch scholar Cardinal Adriaan Boeyens, an ascetic and deeply spiritual man who had been tutor to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Cardinal Giulio was sure that Cardinal Boeyens would be rejected—on the grounds of his obscurity, his lack of political expertise and the fact that he was not Italian. The selfless suggestion that had been made by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici would then demonstrate to all that he was in fact the ideal candidate. But this move backfired badly, Cardinal Giulio's bluff was called and Cardinal Boeyens was elected as Pope Adrian VI."[33]
During his 20-month papacy, Adrian VI "seemed to set great store by Cardinal Medici's opinions ... And all the other cardinals were kept distinctly at arm's-length."[38] In this way, Cardinal Giulio "wielded formidable influence" throughout Adrian's reign.[39] Splitting time between the Palazzo Medici in Florence and thePalazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, Cardinal Giulio "lived there as a generous Medici was expected to live, a patron of artists and musicians, a protector of the poor, a lavish host".[40]
In 1522, rumors began to swirl that Cardinal Giulio—lacking legitimate successors to rule Florence—planned to abdicate rule of the city and "leave the government freely in the people".[5] When it became clear that these rumors were untrue, a faction of mostly elite Florentines hatched a plot to assassinate him and then install their own government under his "great adversary", CardinalFrancesco Soderini.[41][5] Soderini encouraged the plot, exhorting both Adrian andFrancis I of France to strike against Giulio and invade his allies in Sicily. This did not happen. Instead of breaking with Giulio, Adrian had Cardinal Soderini imprisoned.[41] Afterward, the principal conspirators were "declared rebels", and some were "apprehended and beheaded; by which means Giulio was again secured [as leader of Florence]."[5]
Following Adrian VI's death on 14 September 1523, Cardinal Giulio overcame the opposition of the French king[42] and finally succeeded in being elected Pope Clement VII in the nextconclave (19 November 1523).[43]: 29
Pope Clement VII brought to the papal throne a high reputation for political ability and possessed in fact all the accomplishments of a wily diplomat. But his contemporaries considered him worldly and indifferent to the perceived dangers of theProtestant Reformation.
At his accession, Clement VII sent theArchbishop of Capua,Nikolaus von Schönberg, to the kings ofFrance,Spain, andEngland, in order to bring theItalian War to an end. An early report from theProtonotaryMarino Caracciolo[44] to the Emperor records: "As the Turks threaten to conquer Christian states, it seems to him that it is his first duty as Pope to bring about a general peace of all Christian princes, and he begs him (the Emperor), as the firstborn son of the Church, to aid him in this pious work."[45] But the pope's attempt failed.
Francis I of France's conquest of Milan in 1524, during hisItalian campaign of 1524–1525, prompted the Pope to quit theImperial–Spanish side and to ally himself with other Italian princes, including theRepublic of Venice, and France through a treaty of January 1525. This treaty granted the definitive acquisition ofParma andPiacenza for thePapal States, the rule of Medici over Florence and the free passage of the French troops toNaples. This policy in itself was sound and patriotic, but Clement VII's zeal soon cooled; by his want of foresight and unseasonable economy, he laid himself open to an attack from the turbulent Roman barons, which obliged him to invoke the mediation of the emperor, Charles V.[citation needed] One month later, Francis I was crushed and imprisoned in theBattle of Pavia, and Clement VII went deeper in his former engagements with Charles V, signing an alliance with theviceroy of Naples.
But deeply concerned about Imperial arrogance, he was to pick up with France again when Francis I was freed after theTreaty of Madrid (1526): the Pope entered into theLeague of Cognac together with France, Venice, andFrancesco II Sforza ofMilan. Clement VII issued an invective against Charles V, who in reply defined him a "wolf" instead of a "shepherd", menacing the summoning of a council about theLutheran question.[citation needed]
Like his cousin Pope Leo X, Clement was considered too generous to his Medici relatives, draining the Vatican treasuries. This included the assignment of positions all the way up to Cardinal, lands, titles, and money. These actions prompted reform measures after Clement's death to help prevent such excessive nepotism.[46]
In his 1529 bullIntra Arcana Clement VII gave a grant of permissions and privileges to Charles V and theSpanish Empire, which included the power ofpatronage within their colonies in the Americas.[47][48]
The Pope's wavering politics also caused the rise of the Imperial party inside theCuria: CardinalPompeo Colonna's soldiers pillagedVatican Hill and gained control of the whole of Rome in his name. The humiliated Pope promised therefore to bring thePapal States to the Imperial side again. But soon after, Colonna left the siege and went to Naples, not keeping his promises and dismissing the Cardinal from his charge.[contradictory] From this point on, Clement VII could do nothing but follow the fate of the French party to the end.[ambiguous]
Charles of Bourbon died while mounting a ladder during the short siege and his starving troops, unpaid and left without a guide, felt free to ravage Rome from 6 May 1527. The many incidents of murder, rape, and vandalism that followed ended the splendours ofRenaissance Rome forever. Clement VII, who had displayed no more resolution in his military than in his political conduct, was shortly afterwards (6 June) obliged to surrender himself together with theCastel Sant'Angelo, where he had taken refuge. He agreed to pay a ransom of 400,000ducats in exchange for his life; conditions included the cession ofParma,Piacenza,Civitavecchia, andModena to the Holy Roman Empire. (Only the last could be occupied in fact.) At the same time, Venice took advantage of his situation to captureCervia andRavenna whileSigismondo Malatesta returned toRimini.
Clement was kept as a prisoner in Castel Sant'Angelo for six months. After having bought off some Imperial officers, he escaped disguised as a peddler and took shelter inOrvieto and then inViterbo. He came back to a depopulated and devastated Rome only in October 1528.
Meanwhile, in Florence, Republican enemies of the Medici took advantage of the chaos to again expel the Pope's family from the city.
In June 1529 the warring parties signed thePeace of Barcelona. The Papal States regained some cities and Charles V agreed to restore the Medici to power in Florence. In 1530, after an eleven-monthsiege, the Tuscan city capitulated and Clement VII installed his illegitimate nephewAlessandro as duke. Subsequently, the Pope followed a policy of subservience to the emperor, endeavouring on the one hand to induce him to act with severity against the Lutherans in Germany and on the other to avoid his demands for a general council.
During his half-year imprisonment in 1527, Clement VII grew a full beard as a sign of mourning for thesack of Rome. This was in contradiction to Catholiccanon law,[49] which required priests to be clean-shaven, but had as precedent the beardPope Julius II wore for nine months in 1511–12 as a sign of mourning for the papal city ofBologna.
Unlike Julius II, however, Clement kept his beard until his death in 1534. His example in wearing a beard was followed by his successor,Paul III, and indeed by 24 popes after him, down toInnocent XII, who died in 1700. Clement was thus the unintentional originator of a fashion that lasted well over a century.[citation needed]
In 1532, Clement VII took possession ofAncona, which definitively lost its freedom and became part of thePapal States, ending hundreds of years when theRepublic of Ancona was an important maritime power.[citation needed]
By the late 1520s, KingHenry VIII wanted to have his marriage to Charles's auntCatherine of Aragonannulled. The couple's sons died in infancy, threatening the future of theHouse of Tudor, although Henry did have a daughter,Mary Tudor. Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God".[50] Catherine had been hisbrother's widow, but the marriage had been childless, so the marriage was not against Old Testament law, which forbids such unions only if the brother had children.[51] Moreover,Pope Julius II had given adispensation to allow the wedding.[52] Henry now argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry asked Clement to annul the marriage, but the Pope, possibly acting under pressure from Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose effective prisoner he was, refused. According to Catholic teaching, a validly contracted marriage is indivisible until death, and thus the pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of animpediment previously dispensed.[53] Many people close to Henry wished simply to ignore Clement, but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that theParliament of England could not empower theArchbishop of Canterbury to act against the Pope's prohibition. In Parliament, BishopJohn Fisher was the Pope's champion.
Henry subsequently underwent a marriage ceremony withAnne Boleyn, in either late 1532 or early 1533.[54] The marriage was made easier by the death of the Archbishop of CanterburyWilliam Warham, a stalwart friend of the Pope, after which Henry persuaded Clement to appointThomas Cranmer, a friend of the Boleyn family, as his successor. The Pope granted thepapal bulls necessary for Cranmer's promotion to Canterbury, and also demanded that Cranmer take the customary oath of allegiance to the pope before his consecration. Laws made under Henry already declared that bishops would be consecrated even without papal approval. Cranmer was consecrated, while declaring beforehand that he did not agree with the oath he would take.[55] Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment[56] of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required. The Pope responded to the marriage byexcommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Catholic Church.
Consequently, in England, in the same year, theAct of Conditional Restraint of Annates transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown. ThePeter's Pence Act outlawed the annual payment by landowners ofone penny to the Pope. This act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only yourGrace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by the Pope's "unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions".[57] Ultimately, in 1534, Henry led the English Parliament to pass theAct of Supremacy that established the independentChurch of England and broke from the Catholic Church.
In 1533, Clement married his cousin's granddaughter,Catherine de' Medici, to the future KingHenry II of France, son of King Francis I. Due to an illness, before setting out toMarseille for the wedding, Clement issued a Bull on 3 September 1533 giving instructions on what to do if he died outside Rome.[58] The wedding ceremony took place atÉglise Saint-Ferréol les Augustins on 28 October 1533 and was conducted by Clement himself. It was "followed by nine days of lavish banquets, pageants, and festivities."[33] On 7 November in Marseille, Clement created four new cardinals, all of them French.[26]: 22 He also held separate, private meetings with Francis I and Charles V. Charles' daughter,Margaret of Austria was set to marry Clement's relative—Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence—in 1536.[59]
According to Medici historian Paul Strathern, Clement marrying Catherine into France's royal family and Alessandro becomingDuke of Florence and marrying into the Hapsburg family "marked perhaps the most significant turning point in the history of the Medici family—the ascent into nobility in Florence, and the joining of the French royal family. Without the guiding hand of Clement VII, the Medici would never have been able to achieve the pinnacles of greatness that were yet to come" in the following centuries.[33]
On 10 December 1533, Clement returned to Rome with a fever and complaining of stomach problems. Strathern writes of how he had been ill for months: "[he] was aging rapidly...his liver was failing and his skin turned yellow; he also lost the sight of one eye and became partially blind in the other."[33] He was so ill at the beginning of August 1534 that CardinalAgostino Trivulzio wrote to King Francis that the Pope's doctors feared for his life.[60]
On 23 September 1534, Clement wrote a long letter of farewell to Emperor Charles.[61] He also affirmed, just days before his death, thatMichelangelo should paintThe Last Judgment above the altar in theSistine Chapel.[8] Clement VII died just two days later, on 25 September 1534,[62] having lived 56 years and four months, reigning for 10 years, 10 months, and 7 days. His body was interred inSaint Peter's Basilica, and later transferred to a tomb inSanta Maria sopra Minerva in Rome,[63] which was designed byBaccio Bandinelli.[64]
Clement's biographerEmmanuel Rodocanachi writes that "in accordance with the custom of those times, people attributed his death to poison"—specifically, poisoning bydeath cap mushroom.[65][66] Clement's symptoms and the length of his illness do not, however, support the hypothesis that he had been poisoned.[clarification needed][citation needed]
Clement VII's papacy is generally regarded as one of history's most tumultuous; opinions of Clement himself are often nuanced.[4] For example, Clement's contemporaryFrancesco Vettori writes that he "endured a great labor to become, from a great and respected cardinal, a small and little-esteemed pope", but also that "if one considers the lives of previous popes one may truly say that, for more than a hundred years, no better man than Clement VII sat upon the Throne. Nevertheless, it was in his day that the disaster took place while these others, who were filled with all vices, lived and died in felicity—as the world sees it. Neither should we seek to question the Lord, our God, who will punish—or not punish–in what manner and in what time it pleases him."[67]: 280
The disasters of Clement's pontificate—the Sack of Rome and the English Reformation—are regarded as turning points in the histories of Catholicism, Europe, and the Renaissance.[68] Modern historian Kenneth Gouwens writes, "Clement's failures must be viewed above all in the context of major changes in the dynamics of European politics. As warfare on the Italian peninsula intensified in the mid-1520s, the imperative of autonomy [for the Catholic Church and Italy] required enormous financial outlays to field standing armies. Political survival perforce eclipsed ecclesiastical reform as a short-term goal, and the costs of war necessitated the curtailment of expenditure on culture. Clement pursued policies consistent with those of his illustrious predecessors Julius II and Leo X; but in the 1520s, those policies could but fail.... Reform of the Church, to which his successors would turn, required resources and concerted secular support that the second Medici pope was unable to muster."[43]: 31
Regarding Clement's struggle to liberate Italy and the Catholic Church from foreign domination, historian Fred Dotolo writes that "one might see in his papacy a vigorous defense of papal rights against the growth of monarchial power, a diplomatic and even pastoral struggle to retain the ancient division within Christendom of the priestly and kingly offices. Should the new monarchs of the early modern period reduce the papacy to a mere appendage of secular authority, religious issues would become little more than state policy.... Clement VII attempted to restrain the expansion of royal power and maintain the independence of Rome and of papal prerogatives."[69]
In a final analysis of Clement's papacy, historian E.R. Chamberlin writes, "in all but his personal attributes, Clement VII was a protagonist in a Greek tragedy, the victim called upon to endure the results of actions committed long before. Each temporal claim of his predecessors had entangled the Papacy just a little more in the lethal game of politics, even while each moral debasement divorced it just a little more from the vast body of Christians from whom ultimately it drew its strength."[67]: 278 More charitably, modern historian James Grubb writes, "indeed, at a certain point it is difficult to see how he might have fared much better, given the obstacles he faced. Certainly his predecessors since the end of the Schism had experienced their share of opposition, but did any have to fight on so many fronts as Clement, and against such overwhelming odds? At one time or another he battled the Holy Roman Empire (now fueled by precious metals from America), the French, the Turks, rival Italian powers, fractious forces within the papal states, and entrenched interests within the Curia itself. That the precious liberta d'Italia (freedom from outside domination) should have been lost irrevocably seems more an inevitability than a product of Clement's particular failings. He tried his utost...."[74]
The life of the second Medici pope has been portrayed numerous times in films and television, notably the Netflix seriesMedici: The Magnificent, where the figure is portrayed by British actorJacob Dudman.
The Last Judgement byMichelangelo, commissioned by Pope Clement VII
As both a cardinal and Pope, Giulio de' Medici "commissioned or supervised many of the best-known artistic undertakings of thecinquecento."[75] Of those works, he's best known for Michelangelo's monumental fresco in theSistine Chapel,The Last Judgment;Raphael's iconic altarpieceThe Transfiguration; Michelangelo's sculptures for theMedici Chapel in Florence; Raphael's architecturalVilla Madama in Rome; and Michelangelo's innovativeLaurentian Library in Florence.[76][77][78][79] "As a patron, [Giulio de' Medici] proved extraordinarily confident in technical affairs," which allowed him to suggest workable architectural and artistic solutions for commissions ranging from Michelangelo'sLaurentian Library toBenvenuto Cellini's celebrated Papal Morse.[80][12][81] As Pope, he appointed goldsmith Cellini head of the Papal Mint; and painterSebastiano del Piombo keeper of the Papal Seal.[82][83] Sebastiano's tour de force,The Raising of Lazarus, was produced via a contest arranged by Cardinal Giulio, pitting Sebastiano in direct competition with Raphael over who could produce the better altarpiece for theNarbonne Cathedral.[83][84]
Giulio de' Medici's patronage extended to theology, literature, and science. Some of the best known works associated with him areErasmus'On Free Will, which he encouraged in response toMartin Luther's critiques of the Catholic Church;Machiavelli'sFlorentine Histories, which he commissioned; andCopernicus'heliocentric idea, which he personally approved in 1533.[22][85][14][15][16] WhenJohann Widmanstetter explained theCopernican system to him, he was so grateful that he gave Widmanstetter a valuable gift.[86] In 1531 Clement issued rules for the oversight of human cadaver dissection and medical test trials, a sort of primitive code of medical ethics.[87] Humanist and authorPaolo Giovio was his personal physician.[88]
Giulio de' Medici was a talented musician, and his circle included many well-known artists and thinkers of the ItalianHigh Renaissance.[19] For example, "in the days before his papacy, the future Clement VII had been close toLeonardo da Vinci," with Leonardo gifting him a painting, theMadonna of the Carnation.[33] He was a patron of the satiristPietro Aretino, who "wrote a series of viciously satirical lampoons supporting the candidacy of Giulio de' Medici for the papacy."[89] As Pope, he appointed authorBaldassare Castiglione as Papal diplomat toHoly Roman Emperor Charles V; and historianFrancesco Guicciardini as governor of theRomagna, the northernmost province of the Papal States.[90][91]
Italian Renaissance artistic trends from 1523 to 1527 are sometimes called the "Clementine style", and notable for their technical virtuosity.[92] In 1527, the Sack of Rome "put a brutal end to an artistic golden age, the Clementine style that had developed in Rome since the coronation of the Medici Pope".[93]André Chastel describes the artists who worked in the Clementine style asParmigianino,Rosso Fiorentino, Sebastiano del Piombo, Benvenuto Cellini,Marcantonio Raimondi, and numerous associates of Raphael:Giulio Romano,Giovanni da Udine;Perino del Vaga; andPolidoro da Caravaggio.[10] During the Sack, several of these artists were either killed, made prisoner, or took part in the fighting.[10]
Clement was renowned for his intelligence and counsel, but maligned for his inability to take timely and decisive action. Historian G.F. Young writes, "he spoke with equal knowledge of his subject whether that were philosophy and theology, or mechanics and hydraulic architecture. In all affairs he displayed an extraordinary acuteness; the most perplexing questions were unravelled, the most difficult circumstances penetrated to the very bottom, by his extreme sagacity. No man could debate a point with more address."[94] Historian Paul Strathern writes, "his inner life was illuminated by an unwavering faith;" he was also in "surprisingly close contact with the ideals [of Renaissance humanism], and even more surprisingly was deeply sympathetic to them."[33] For example, "Clement VII had no difficulty in acceptingCopernicus'sheliocentric idea, and appeared to see no challenge to his faith in its implications; his Renaissance humanism was open to such progressive theories."[33] Of Clement's other qualities, Strathern writes "he had inheritedhis murdered father's good looks, though these tended to lapse into a dark scowl rather than a smile. He also inherited something of his great-grandfatherCosimo de' Medici's skill with accounts, as well as a strong inclination to his legendary caution, making the new pope hesitant when it came to taking important decisions; and unlike his cousin Leo X, he possessed a deep understanding of art."[33]
Of Clement's limitations, historianFrancesco Guicciardini writes, "although he had a most capable intelligence and marvelous knowledge of world affairs, he lacked the corresponding resolution and execution.... He remained almost always in suspension and ambiguous when he was faced with deciding those things that from afar he had many times foreseen, considered, and almost revealed."[95] Strathern writes that Clement was "a man of almost icy self-control, but in him the Medici trait of self-contained caution had deepened into a flaw.... If anything, Clement VII had too much understanding—he could always see both sides of any particular argument. This had made him an excellent close adviser to his cousin Leo X, but hampered his ability to take matters into his own hands."[33] TheCatholic Encyclopedia notes that while his "private life was free from reproach and he had many excellent impulses ... despite good intention, all qualities of heroism and greatness must emphatically be denied him."[8]
^abRabin, Sheila (17 September 2018). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
^de Valdes, Mario."Alessandro de Medici".The Blurred Racial Lines of Famous Families. Retrieved27 January 2018.
^abGuilelmus Gulik and Conradus Eubel,Hierarchia catholica medii et recentioris aevi, volume III, revised ed. (Monasterii 1923).
^Gar, p. 64:"Il cardinal de' Medici, suo nepote, che non è legittimo, ha gran potere col papa; è uomo di gran maneggio e di grandissima autorità; tuttavia sa vivere col papa, nè fa alcuna cosa di conto se prima non domanda al papa. Ora si ritrova a Fiorenza a governare quella città".
^Reston, James (5 May 2015).Luther's Fortress: Martin Luther and His Reformation Under Siege. United States: Hachette.ISBN978-0465063932.
^Sidney Alexander, Introduction to Francesco Guicciardini,The History of Italy, (Princeton, 1969)
^abcdefghijklmStrathern, Paul (7 March 2016).The Medici: Power, Money, and Ambition in the Italian Renaissance. New York City: Pegasus.ISBN978-1-60598-966-2.
^British History Online. Quote: "The King of France declared himself openly against the election of the Cardinal de Medicis." (19 November 1523 entry)
^abCorkery, James (2010).The Papacy Since 1500: From Italian Prince to Universal Pastor. Edited by James Corkery and Thomas Worcester. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521509879.
^Giorgio Viviano Marchesi Buonaccorsi,Antichità ed excellenza del Protonotariato Apostolico Partecipante (Faenza: Benedetti 1751), pp. 297–299. Caracciolo was a Neapolitan, of the family of the Counts of Galera; he became a Cardinal on 21 May 1535.
^Tomas, Natalie R. (2003).The Medici Women: Gender and Power in Renaissance Florence. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 126–127.ISBN978-0754607779.
^Stogre, Michael (1992).That the world may believe: The development of papal social thought on aboriginal rights.Sherbrooke: Éditions Paulines. p. 116.ISBN978-2-89039-549-7.
^Thomas Cranmer: Churchman and Scholar. By Paul Ayris and David Selwyn. Boydell & Brewer Ltd, 1 January 1999 (pp. 119–121)
^Cranmer, in a letter, describes it as adivorce, but it was clearly not a dissolution of a marriage in the modern sense but the annulment of a marriage which was said to be defective on the grounds of affinity—Catherine was his deceased brother's widow. In his decree, Cranmer uses the words, "...dictum matrimonium..., ut praemittitur, contractum et consummatum, nullum et omnino invalidum fuisse et esse..."Gilbert Burnet (1825).The History of the Reformation of the Church of England ... in Six Volumes (in Latin). Vol. I, Part II. London: W. Baynes and Son. p. 153.
^abSalomoni, David (2021).Educating the Catholic People: Religious Orders and Their Schools in Early Modern Italy (1500–1800). Brill.
^Evennett, H.O. (2004). "The new orders". In Elton, G. R. (ed.).The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 2, The Reformation,1520–1559 (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 320–321.
^Grubb, J.S. (August 2006). "The Pontificate of Clement VII. History, Politics, Culture, edited by Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss".Renaissance Studies.20 (4):596–598.doi:10.1111/j.1477-4658.2006.00214.x.
^Reiss, Sheryl E. (2012) [2012]."12". In Burke, Jill (ed.).Rethinking the High Renaissance: The Culture of the Visual Arts in Early Sixteenth-Century Rome, "Pope Clement VII and the Decorum of Medieval Art". Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company. p. 289.ISBN978-1409425588. Retrieved29 September 2017.
^Young, G.F. (1930).The Medici, Vol. 1. London: University Press of the Pacific. p. 437.ISBN0898754127.
^Guicciardini, Francesco (1969).The History of Italy; translated, edited, with notes and an introduction by Sydney Alexander. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 363.ISBN0691008000.
^Medici does not appear as Bishop either in F. Ughelli,Italia sacra II (ed. N. Colet) (Venice 1717), p. 37; or in Pius Gams,Series episcoporum (1873), p. 676. Considering the time span, some eight weeks, it is more likely that he was Administrator. On 3 March, the day that Medici resigned, Cardinal Grassis (who had been Bishop of Bologna) was named Administrator of Bologna.
Hersey, George L. (1993).High Renaissance Art in St. Peter's and the Vatican: An Interpretive Guide. The University of Chicago Press.
Reynolds, Anne (2016). "The Papal Court in Exile: Clement VII in Orvieto, 1527–28". In Gouwens, Kenneth; Reiss, Sheryl E. (eds.).The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 143–164.
Visceglia, Maria Antonietta (2006). "A comparative historiographic reflection on sovereignty in early modern Europe: interregnum rites and papal funerals". In Schilling, Heinz; Tóth, István György (eds.).Cultural Exchange in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge University Press. pp. 162–190.
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