In the earlier phase of theEnglish Reformation there were bothCatholic andProtestant martyrs. This continued into the later phases, which saw thePenal Laws punish Catholics andnonconforming Protestants. Various factions continued to challenge the leadership and doctrine of the church into the 17th century, which underCharles I veered towards a more Catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement, especially under ArchbishopLaud. Following the victory of theRoundheads in theEnglish Civil War, thePuritan faction dominated and theBook of Common Prayer and episcopacy were abolished. These would be restored under theStuart Restoration in 1660.
Henry's religious beliefs remained aligned to traditional Catholicism throughout his reign, albeit with reformist aspects in the tradition ofErasmus and firm commitment to royal supremacy. In order to secure royal supremacy over the church, however, Henry allied himself with Protestants, who until that time had been treated asheretics.[19] The main doctrine of theProtestant Reformation wasjustification by faith alone rather than by good works.[20] The logical outcome of this belief is that the Mass, sacraments, charitable acts,prayers to saints, prayers for the dead, pilgrimage, and theveneration of relics do not mediate divine favour. To believe they can would besuperstition at best andidolatry at worst.[21][22]
Between 1536 and 1540, Henry engaged in thedissolution of the monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded religious houses, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. HistorianGeorge W. Bernard argues:
The dissolution of the monasteries in the late 1530s was one of the most revolutionary events in English history. There were nearly 900 religious houses in England, around 260 for monks, 300 for regular canons, 142 nunneries and 183 friaries; some 12,000 people in total, 4,000 monks, 3,000 canons, 3,000 friars and 2,000 nuns....one adult man in fifty was in religious orders.[23]
In the reign ofEdward VI (1547–1553), the Church of England underwent an extensive theological reformation. Justification by faith was made a central teaching.[24] Government-sanctionediconoclasm led to the destruction of images and relics. Stained glass, shrines, statues, androods were defaced or destroyed. Church walls werewhitewashed and covered with biblical texts condemning idolatry.[25] The most significant reform in Edward's reign was the adoption of an English liturgy to replace the old Latin rites.[26] Written by theProtestant Reformer ArchbishopThomas Cranmer, the1549Book of Common Prayer implicitly taught justification by faith,[27] and rejected the Catholic doctrines of transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass.[28] This was followed by a greatly revised1552Book of Common Prayer, which propounded aReformed view of the Lord's Supper (cf.Lord's Supper in Reformed theology).[29] Along withThe Book of Common Prayer,The Thirty-nine Articles andThe Books of Homilies, assembled through the efforts of the ReformerThomas Cranmer, became the basis of Anglican doctrine after the English Reformation.[2]
During the reign ofMary I (1553–1558), England was briefly reunited with the Catholic Church. Mary died childless, so it was left to the new regime of her half-sisterQueen Elizabeth I to resolve the direction of the Church. TheElizabethan Religious Settlement returned the Church to where it stood in 1553 before Edward's death. TheAct of Supremacy made the monarch the Church'sSupreme Governor of the Church of England. TheAct of Uniformity restored a slightly altered 1552Book of Common Prayer. In 1571, theThirty-nine Articles received parliamentary approval as a doctrinal statement for the Church. The settlement ensured the Church of England was Protestant, but it was unclear what kind of Protestantism was being adopted.[30] Anglicanism was said to be avia media between two forms of Protestantism,Lutheranism andReformed Christianity though more aligned with the latter than the former.[3] The prayer book's Reformedeucharistic theology posited areal spiritual presence (pneumatic presence), since Article 28 of the Thirty-nine Articles taught that the body of Christ was eaten "only after an heavenly and spiritual manner".[31][29] Nevertheless, there was enough ambiguity to allow later theologians to articulate various versions ofAnglican eucharistic theology.[32]
The Church of England was theestablished church (constitutionally established by the state with the head of state as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be developed over the next century.[33][34][35] Notably, theAct of Settlement 1701, which remains in force today, stipulates that the monarch (who serves as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England) be a Protestant, maintain the Protestant succession, and "join in communion with the Church of England as by law established."[36] TheCoronation Oath Act 1688 (reiterated in the Act of Settlement 1701) requires the rising Sovereign to take an oath to maintain "the true Profession of the Gospel and the Protestant Reformed Religion Established by Law" in the United Kingdom.[36]
Struggle for control of the church persisted throughout the reigns ofJames I and his sonCharles I, culminating in the outbreak of theFirst English Civil War in 1642. The two opposing factions consisted ofPuritans, who sought to "purify" the church and enact more far-reaching Protestant reforms, and those who wanted to retain traditional beliefs and practices. In a period when many believed "true religion" and "good government" were the same thing, religious disputes often included a political element, one example being the struggle over bishops. In addition to their religious function, bishops acted as state censors, able to ban sermons and writings considered objectionable, while lay people could be tried bychurch courts for crimes includingblasphemy,heresy,fornication and other 'sins of the flesh', as well as matrimonial or inheritance disputes.[37] They also sat in theHouse of Lords and often blocked legislation opposed by the Crown; their ousting from Parliament by the1640 Clergy Act was a major step on the road to war.[38]
Major repairs were done to Canterbury Cathedral after the Restoration in 1660.
After theStuart Restoration in 1660, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. UntilJames II of England was ousted by theGlorious Revolution in November 1688, manyNonconformists still sought to negotiate terms that would allow them to re-enter the church.[41] In order to secure his political position,William III of England ended these discussions and the Tudor ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation was abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground and Nonconformists continuing their existence outside. One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the apostolic succession or who had been ordained by ministers in presbyter's orders. Official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century. Roman Catholics, perhaps 5% of the English population (down from 20% in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them. By the end of 18th century they had dwindled to 1% of the population, mostly amongst upper middle-class gentry, their tenants, and extended families.[citation needed]
By the Fifth Article of theUnion with Ireland 1800, the Church of England andChurch of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland".[42] Although "the continuance and preservation of the said united church ... [was] deemed and taken to be an essential and fundamental part of the union",[43] theIrish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.
As the English Empire (after the 1707union of theKingdom of England with theKingdom of Scotland to form theKingdom of Great Britain, theBritish Empire) expanded, English (after 1707,British) colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England.
TheDiocese of Nova Scotia was created on 11 August 1787 byLetters Patent ofGeorge III which "erected the Province ofNova Scotia into a bishop's see" and these also namedCharles Inglis as first bishop of the see.[44] The diocese was the first Church of England see created outside England and Wales (i.e. the first colonial diocese). At this point, the see covered present-day New Brunswick, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and Quebec.[45] From 1825 to 1839, it included thenine parishes ofBermuda, subsequently transferred to theDiocese of Newfoundland.[46]
As they developed, beginning with the United States of America, or became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally, but remained linked to the Church of England through theAnglican Communion. In the provinces that made up Canada, the church operated as the "Church of England in Canada" until 1955 when it became theAnglican Church of Canada.[47]
In Bermuda, the oldest remaining British overseas possession, the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of theSea Venture which initiated Bermuda's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England inBermuda, each with its own church andglebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the 19th century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda's parishes were attached to theSee of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from theDiocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under theBishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own bishop.[citation needed] The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as theAnglican Church of Bermuda, which is anextra-provincial diocese,[48] with bothmetropolitan andprimatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches isSt Peter's Church in theUNESCO World Heritage Site ofSt George's Town, which is the oldest Anglican church outside of the British Isles, and the oldest Protestant church in the New World.[49]
The first Anglican missionaries arrived in Nigeria in 1842 and the first Anglican Nigerian was consecrated a bishop in 1864. However, the arrival of a rival group of Anglican missionaries in 1887 led to infighting that slowed the Church's growth. In this large African colony, by 1900 there were only 35,000 Anglicans, about 0.2% of the population. However, by the late 20th century theChurch of Nigeria was the fastest growing of all Anglican churches, reaching about 18 percent of the local population by 2000.[47]
The church established its presence in Hong Kong and Macau in 1843. In 1951, theDiocese of Hong Kong and Macao became an extra-provincial diocese, and in 1998 it became a province of the Anglican Communion, under the nameHong Kong Sheng Kung Hui.
From 1796 to 1818 the Church began operating inSri Lanka (formerlyCeylon), following the 1796 start of British colonisation, when the first services were held for the British civil and military personnel. In 1799, the first Colonial Chaplain was appointed, following which CMS and SPG missionaries began their work, in 1818 and 1844 respectively. Subsequently theChurch of Ceylon was established: in 1845 the diocese of Colombo was inaugurated, with the appointment ofJames Chapman as Bishop of Colombo. It served as an extra-provincial jurisdiction of thearchbishop of Canterbury, who served as itsmetropolitan.
Under the guidance ofRowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from theClergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.[51]
Continued decline in attendance and church response
One of the now "redundant" buildings,Holy Trinity Church, Wensley, in North Yorkshire; much of the current structure was built in the 14th and 15th centuries
BishopSarah Mullally has insisted that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches, because people may still encounter God withoutattending a service in a church; for example hearing the Christian message through social media sites or in a café run as a community project.[52] The Church of England estimates that 35 - 50 million people visit its churches as tourists annually.[53][54] Additionally, 9.7 million people visit at least one of its churches every year and 1 million students are educated at Church of England schools (which number 4,700).[55] In 2019, an estimated 10 million people visited a cathedral and an additional "1.3 million people visited Westminster Abbey, where 99% of visitors paid / donated for entry".[56] In 2022, the church reported than an estimated 5.7 million people visited a cathedral and 6.8 million visited Westminster Abbey.[57] Nevertheless, the archbishops ofCanterbury andYork warned in January 2015 that the Church of England would no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership were somehow to be reversed, as typical Sunday attendance had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years:[58]
The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England. ... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so.
Between 1969 and 2010, almost 1,800 church buildings, roughly 11% of the stock, were closed (so-called "redundant churches"); the majority (70%) in the first half of the period; only 514 being closed between 1990 and 2010.[59] Some active use was being made of about half of the closed churches.[60] By 2019 the rate of closure had steadied at around 20 to 25 per year (0.2%); some being replaced by new places of worship.[61] Additionally, in 2018 the church announced a £27 million growth programme to create 100 new churches.[62]
In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards".[63]
TheCOVID-19 pandemic had a sizeable effect on church attendance, with attendance in 2020 and 2021 well below that of 2019. By 2022, the first full year without substantial restrictions related to the pandemic, numbers were still notably down on pre-pandemic participation. According to the 2022 release of "Statistics for Mission" by the church, the median size of each church's worshipping community (those who attend in person or online at least once a month) stood at 37 people, with average weekly attendance having declined from 34 to 25; while Easter and Christmas services had seen falls from 51 to 38 and 80 to 56 individuals respectively.[64] In the following year's release the Church detailed that, compared to pre-pandemic trends, the Church's average weekly attendance was 8% below what was expected. However, attendance at particular services such as baptisms and marriages had increased by more than 20% compared to the projected pre-pandemic trend.[65]
Examples of wider declines across the whole church include:[64][65]
The Church of England's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement. The historical development of Anglicanism saw itself as navigating avia media between two forms of Protestantism—Lutheranism andReformed Christianity—though leaning closer to the latter than the former.[3][69] The Church of England affirms the protestant reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty-nine Articles are the church's only official confessional statement. The Church of England did retainthree orders of ministry and theapostolic succession of bishops, as with the Scandinavian Lutheran Churches (such as theChurch of Sweden) and Roman Catholicism. Its identity has thus been described asReformed andCatholic.[3] There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church.[68] The Bible, the Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish catholicity. The Protestant Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy. They did not succeed because the monarchy and the Church resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent. Moreover, "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character." The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration" and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism,"[70] This is "One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation,"[70] that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue.[71]
The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth of opinion fromliberal to conservative clergy and members.[72] This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the catholic tradition and others who emphasise the reformed tradition to coexist. Thethree schools of thought (or parties) in the Church of England are sometimes calledhigh church (orAnglo-Catholic),low church (orevangelical Anglican) andbroad church (orliberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo-Catholics maintain many traditional catholic practices and liturgical forms.[73] The Catholic tradition, strengthened and reshaped from the 1830s by the Oxford movement, has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments and the belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a sign and instrument of the Church of England's Catholic and apostolic identity.[74] The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology.[75] It has emphasized the significance of the Protestant aspects of the Church of England's identity, stressing the importance of the authority of Scripture, preaching, justification by faith and personal conversion.[74] The theological perspectives within the Church of England have included theReformed Anglican perspective, as well as a minorityArminian Anglican view.[4] Historically, the term 'broad church' has been used to describe those of middle-of-the-road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal protestantism.[76] The liberal broad church tradition has emphasized the importance of the use of reason in theological exploration. It has stressed the need to develop Christian belief and practice in order to respond creatively to wider advances in human knowledge and understanding and the importance of social and political action in forwarding God's kingdom.[74] The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40% of Church of England worshippers attendedevangelical Anglican churches (compared with 26% in 1989), and 83% of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.[77]
In 1604,James I ordered an English language translation of the Bible known as theKing James Version, which was published in 1611 and authorised for use in parishes, although it was not an "official" version per se.[78] The Church of England's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the1662 version of theBook of Common Prayer (BCP). In the year 2000, the General Synod approved a modernliturgical book,Common Worship, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980Alternative Service Book, it differs from theBook of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP-based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as theAgnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.[citation needed]
The liturgies are organised according to the traditionalliturgical year and thecalendar of saints. Thesacraments ofbaptism and theeucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation.Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receiveconfirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ'sWords of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ's once-for-all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith".[79]
The use of hymns andmusic in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. TraditionalChoral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style ofpsalm chanting harks back to the Church of England's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such asCharles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.[80]
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of theCharismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those ofevangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt acontemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporatingcontemporary worship music.[81]
Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist" wing, it also has manyliberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection".[82] Others, such asGiles Fraser, a contributor toThe Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of thevirgin birth of Jesus.[83]The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct."[84][85] Moreover, many congregations are seeker-friendly environments. For example, one report from theChurch Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity [is] very much in the centre" to reach out to spiritual people.[86]
The Church of England is launching a project on "gendered language" in Spring 2023 in efforts to "study the ways in which God is referred to and addressed in liturgy and worship".[87]
Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861, but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have historically been able to serve aslay readers. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop's messengers", who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After the war, no women were appointed as lay readers until 1969.[88]
Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. Theordination of women as priests was approved by theGeneral Synod in 1992 andbegan in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men),[89] but in the next two years, ordinations of men again exceeded those of women.[90]
In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train" the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration" of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman.[91] On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women.[92] Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a General Synod vote in November 2012.[93][94] On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.[95]
On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions.[96] This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod. In December 2014,Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.[97] In July 2015,Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became theBishop of Gloucester.[98] She andSarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops atCanterbury Cathedral.[98] Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender-inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God."[99]
In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecratedDame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as theBishop of London.[100] Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Church of England.[101] Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood.[102] She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal.[103] On women'sreproductive rights, Mullally describes herself aspro-choice while also being personallypro-life.[104] On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that: "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love."[105]
The Church of England has been discussingsame-sex marriages and LGBT clergy.[106][107] The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman.[108][109] The church does not allow clergy to perform same-sex marriages, but in February 2023 approved of blessings for same-sex couples following a civil marriage or civil partnership.[110][111] The church teaches "Same-sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity."[112][113] In January 2023, the Bishops approved "prayers of thanksgiving, dedication and for God's blessing for same-sex couples."[114][115][116] The commended prayers of blessing for same-sex couples, known as "Prayers of Love and Faith," may be used during ordinary church services, and in November 2023 General Synod voted to authorise "standalone" blessings for same-sex couples on a trial basis, while permanent authorisation will require additional steps.[117][118] The church also officially supportscelibate civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some ChristianLGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship."[119]
Civil partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005, so long as they remain sexually abstinent,[120][121][122] and the church extends pensions to clergy in same-sex civil partnerships.[123] In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same-sex couples to be given recognition and 'compassionate attention' from the Church, including special prayers."[124] "There is no prohibition on prayers being said in church or there being a 'service'" after a civil union.[125] After same-sex marriage was legalised, the church sought continued availability of civil unions, saying "The Church of England recognises that same-sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework."[126] In 2024, the General Synod voted in support of eventually permitting clergy to enter into civil same-sex marriages.[127][128]
In 2014, the bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer" for couples.[129] In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed."[112] In 2016, the bishop of Grantham,Nicholas Chamberlain, announced that he is gay, in a same-sex relationship and celibate, becoming the first bishop to do so in the church.[130] The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships so long as they remain sexually abstinent could become bishops.[122][131] "The House [of Bishops] has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate."[132]
In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to "take note" of the bishops' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman.[133] Due to passage in all three houses being required, the motion was rejected.[134] After General Synod rejected the motion, the archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion" that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual."[135] The church officially opposes "conversion therapy", a practice which attempts to change a gay or lesbian person's sexual orientation, calling it unethical and supports thebanning of "conversion therapy" in the UK.[136][137] TheDiocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same-sex marriage or civil partnership."[138] In 2022, "The House [of Bishops] also agreed to the formation of a Pastoral Consultative Group to support and advise dioceses on pastoral responses to circumstances that arise concerning LGBTI+ clergy, ordinands, lay leaders and the lay people in their care."[139]
Regardingtransgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church".[140][141] The motion also asked the bishops "to look into special services for transgender people."[142][143] The bishops initially said "the House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found inCommon Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal."[144] The Bishops also authorised services of celebration to mark a gender transition that will be included in formal liturgy.[145][146] Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition.[147] "Since theGender Recognition Act 2004, trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church."[148] The church further decided that same-gender couples may remain married when one spouse experiencesgender transition provided that the spouses identified as opposite genders at the time of the marriage.[149][150] Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office.[151] The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.[152] The Church of England ordained the church's first openlynon-binary priest in 2022.[153][154] In 2023, the Church of England appointedRachel Mann as the church's first openly transArchdeacon.[155][156]
In January 2023, a meeting of the Bishops of the Church of England rejected demands for clergy to conduct same-sex marriages. However, proposals would be put to the General Synod that clergy should be able to hold church blessings for same-sex civil marriages, albeit on a voluntary basis for individual clergy. This comes as the Church continued to be split on same-sex marriages.[157]
In February 2023, ten archbishops of theGlobal South Fellowship of Anglican Churches released a statement stating that they had broken communion and no longer recognisedJustin Welby as "the first among equals" or "primus inter pares" in the Anglican Communion in response to the General Synod's decision to approve the blessing of same-sex couples following a civil marriage or partnership, leading to questions as to the status of the Church of England as themother church of the internationalAnglican Communion.[158][159][160]
In November 2023, the General Synod narrowly voted to allow church blessings for same-sex couples on a trial basis.[161] In December 2023, the first blessings of same-sex couples began in the Church of England.[162][163] In 2024, the General Synod voted to support moving forward with "stand-alone" services of blessing for same-sex couples after a civil marriage or civil partnership.[164][165][166]
The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but believes "there can be strictly limited conditions under which abortion may be morally preferable to any available alternative".[167] The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying/suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice." It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying/suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals."[168] In 2014, George Carey, a former archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia and now advocated legalising "assisted dying".[169] On embryonic stem-cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research".[170]
In the 19th century, English law required the burial of people who had died by suicide to occur onlybetween the hours of 9 p.m. and midnight and without religious rites.[171] The Church of England permitted the use of alternative burial services for people who had died by suicide. In 2017, the Church of England changed its rules to permit the full, standard Christian burial service regardless of whether a person had died by suicide.[172]
In parts ofLiverpool, Manchester andNewcastle two-thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also a life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in the best-off fortunate communities.[174]
The deep-rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, couldn't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. [Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund][175]
Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty-seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urgedDavid Cameron to make sure peoplehave enough to eat.[176]
We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must 'heat or eat' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat whilefood prices have gone up 30% in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions.[177]
Thousands of UK citizens usefood banks. The church's campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking" and called for a national day offasting on 4 April 2014.[177]
In 2009, the Church of England estimated that it had approximately 25–26 millionbaptised members – about 47% of the English population.[178][179] This number has remained consistent since 2001 and was cited again in 2013 and 2014.[180][181][182] In 2010, the government estimated that there were 24,841,000 baptised members of the Church of England.[179] According to a 2016 study published by theJournal of Anglican Studies, the Church of England continued to claim 26 million baptised members, while it also had approximately 1.7 million active baptised members.[183][184][185] According to David Voas, conducting research in 2001 at the University of Sheffield, the number of baptised members was expected to decline at a rate of 1 million every five years;[186] their number was reported to have fallen to 20 million in 2022.[187] Due to its status as theestablished church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their localparish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.[188]
Between 1890 and 2001,churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily.[189] In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 percent of the population to 1.9 per cent.[190] By 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population.[191] One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends continued, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and 87,800 in 2050.[192] The Church of England releases an annual publication, Statistics for Mission, detailing numerous criteria relating to participation with the church. Below is a snapshot of several key metrics from every five years since 2001 (2022 has been used in place of 2021 to avoid the impact of Covid restrictions). Since 2021 Sunday Church attendance has increased, although not to pre-pandemic levels.[193]
In 2020, there were almost 20,000 active clergy serving in the Church of England, including 7,200 retired clergy who continued to serve. In that year, 580 were ordained (330 in stipendiary posts and 250 in self-supporting parochial posts) and a further 580 ordinands began their training.[198] In that year, 33% of those in ordained ministry were female, an increase from the 26% reported in 2016.[198]
The British monarch has the constitutional title ofSupreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the King's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil."[200] In practice this power is often exercised throughParliament and on the advice of thePrime Minister.
The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):[citation needed]
The parish church of St Lawrence inToot Baldon is typical of many small English village churches
Parish is the most local level, often consisting of one church building (aparish church) and community, although many parishes are joining forces in a variety of ways for financial reasons. The parish is looked after by a parishpriest who for historical or legal reasons may be called by one of the following offices:vicar,rector,priest in charge, team rector, team vicar. The first, second, fourth and fifth of these may also be known as the 'incumbent'. The running of the parish is the joint responsibility of the incumbent and theparochial church council (PCC), which consists of the parish clergy and elected representatives from the congregation. The Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe is not formally divided into parishes.
There are a number of local churches that do not have a parish. In urban areas there are a number ofproprietary chapels (mostly built in the 19th century to cope with urbanisation and growth in population). Also in more recent years there are increasinglychurch plants andfresh expressions of church, whereby new congregations are planted in locations such as schools or pubs to spread the Gospel of Christ in non-traditional ways.
Deanery,e.g., Lewisham or Runnymede. This is the area for which aRural Dean (or area dean) is responsible. It consists of a number of parishes in a particular district. The rural dean is usually the incumbent of one of the constituent parishes. The parishes each elect lay (non-ordained) representatives to the deanerysynod. Deanery synod members each have a vote in the election of representatives to the diocesan synod.
Archdeaconry,e.g., the seven in theDiocese of Gibraltar in Europe. This is the area under the jurisdiction of anarchdeacon. It consists of a number of deaneries.
Diocese,e.g.,Diocese of Durham,Diocese of Guildford,Diocese of St Albans. This is the area under the jurisdiction of a diocesan bishop,e.g., the bishops of Durham, Guildford and St Albans, and will have a cathedral. There may be one or moresuffragan bishops within the diocese who assist the diocesan bishop in his ministry,e.g., in Guildford diocese, the Bishop of Dorking. In some very large dioceses a legal measure has been enacted to create "episcopal areas", where the diocesan bishop runs one such area himself and appoints "area bishops" to run the other areas as mini-dioceses, legally delegating many of his powers to the area bishops. Dioceses with episcopal areas includeLondon,Chelmsford,Oxford,Chichester,Southwark, andLichfield. The bishops work with an elected body oflay andordained representatives, known as theDiocesan Synod, to run the diocese. A diocese is subdivided into a number of archdeaconries.
Province,i.e., Canterbury or York. This is the area under the jurisdiction of anarchbishop,i.e. the Archbishops of Canterbury and York. Decision-making within the province is the responsibility of the General Synod (see also above). A province is subdivided into dioceses.
Primacy,i.e., Church of England. TheArchbishop of York's title of "Primate of England" is essentially honorific and carries with it no powers beyond those inherent in beingArchbishop andMetropolitan of theProvince of York.[205] TheArchbishop of Canterbury, on the other hand, the "Primate of All England", has powers that extend over the whole of England, and alsoWales—for example, through hisFaculty Office he may grant a "special marriage licence" permitting the parties to marry otherwise than in a church: for example, in a school, college or university chapel;[206] or anywhere, if one of the parties to the intended marriage is in danger of imminent death.[207][e]
Royal Peculiar, a small number of churches which are more closely associated withthe Crown, for exampleWestminster Abbey, and a very few more closely associated with the law which although conforming to the rites of the Church, are outside episcopal jurisdiction.
All rectors and vicars areappointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to His Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest" to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property—church and parsonage.Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests-in-charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally adean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.[citation needed]
The most senior bishop of the Church of England is theArchbishop of Canterbury, who is themetropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches.Justin Welby was the most recent Archbishop of Canterbury, from 4 February 2013 to his resignation effective on 6 January 2025.[208]
The second most senior bishop is theArchbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York's control by theDanes)[209] he is referred to as the Primate of England.Stephen Cottrell became Archbishop of York in 2020.[210] TheBishop of London, theBishop of Durham and theBishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions, insofar as the holders of those sees automatically become members of theHouse of Lords.[211][f]
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by theCrown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.[212]
The Church of England has a legislative body, General Synod. This can create two types of legislation,measures andcanons. Measures have to be approved but cannot be amended by theBritish Parliament before receivingroyal assent and becoming part of the law of England.[213] Although it is theestablished church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.[214]
Of the 42 diocesanarchbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in theHouse of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the bishops ofLondon,Durham andWinchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by date ofconsecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he or she becomes aLord Spiritual. TheBishop of Sodor and Man and theBishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.[215]
The 2020 report from theIndependent Inquiry into Child Sexual Abuse found several cases of sexual abuse within the Church of England, and concluded that the Church did not protect children from sexual abuse, and allowed abusers to hide.[218][219][220] The Church spent more effort defending alleged abusers than supporting victims or protecting children and young people.[218] Allegations were not taken seriously, and in some cases clergymen were ordained even with a history of child sex abuse.[221] BishopPeter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges ofindecent assault against young adult men.[219][220][222]
In June 2023, theArchbishops' Council dismissed the three board members of the Independent Safeguarding Board, which was set up in 2021 "to hold the Church to account, publicly if needs be, for any failings which are preventing good safeguarding from happening". A statement issued by the Archbishops of Canterbury and York referred to there being "no prospect of resolving the disagreement and that it is getting in the way of the vital work of serving victims and survivors".Jasvinder Sanghera and Steve Reeves, the two independent members of the board, had complained about interference with their work by the Church.[223] The Bishop of Birkenhead,Julie Conalty, speaking toBBC Radio 4 in connection with the dismissals, said: "I think culturally we are resistant as a church to accountability, to criticism. And therefore I don't entirely trust the church, even though I'm a key part of it and a leader within it, because I see the way the wind blows is always in a particular direction."[224]
On 20 July 2023, it was announced that the archbishops of Canterbury and York had appointedAlexis Jay to provide proposals for an independent system of safeguarding for the Church of England.[225]
In February 2025, the General Synod voted not to make safeguarding the responsibiity of an independent body, to the dismay of many.[226]
In February 2025, the Church of England announced it would take forward the clergy disciplinary measure process against 10 clergy, following the Makin Review of the serial abuserJohn Smyth.[227]
Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support, except some funding for building work. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £900 million.[228]
The Church of England runsA Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user-edited resource, it currently lists more than 16,000 churches and has 20,000 editors in 42 dioceses.[230] The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information, which is shared with other websites andmobile apps. The site allows the public to find their local worshipping community, and offers churches free resources,[231] such as hymns, videos and social media graphics.
TheChurch Heritage Record includes information on over 16,000 church buildings, including architectural history, archaeology, art history, and the surrounding natural environment.[232] It can be searched by elements including church name, diocese, date of construction, footprint size,listing grade, and church type. The types of church identified include:
Major Parish Church: "some of the most special, significant and well-loved places of worship in England", having "most of all" of the characteristics of being large (over 1,000msq),listed (generally grade I or II*), having "exceptional significance and/or issues necessitating a conservation management plan" and having a local role beyond that of an average parish church. As of December 2021[update] there are 312 such churches in the database.[233][234] These churches are eligible to join theMajor Churches Network.
Festival Church: a church not used for weekly services but used for occasional services and other events.[235] These churches are eligible to join the Association of Festival Churches.[236] As of December 2021[update] there are 19 such churches in the database.[237]
^Attendance of at least once per month, first used after 2012
^The powers to grant special marriage licences, to appointnotaries public, and to grantLambeth degrees, are derived from the so called "legatine powers" which were held by the Pope's Legate to England prior to the Reformation, and were transferred to the Archbishop of Canterbury by the Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533. Thus they are not, strictly speaking, derived from the status of the Archbishop of Canterbury as "Primate of All England". For this reason, they extend also to Wales.[205]
^The bishops are named in this order in the section.
^abcdSamuel, Chimela Meehoma (28 April 2020).Treasures of the Anglican Witness: A Collection of Essays. Partridge Publishing.ISBN978-1-5437-5784-2.In addition to his emphasis on Bible reading and the introduction to theBook of Common Prayer, other media through which Cranmer sought to catechize the English people were the introduction of the First Book of Homilies and the 39 Articles of Religion. Together with theBook of Common Prayer and the Forty-Two Articles (which were later reduced to thirty-nine), the Book of Homilies stands as one of the essential texts of the Edwardian Reformation, and they all helped to define the shape of Anglicanism then, and in the subsequent centuries. More so, the Articles of Religion, whose primary shape and content were given by Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Ridley in 1553 (and whose final official form was ratified by Convocation, the Queen, and Parliament in 1571), provided a more precise interpretation of Christian doctrine to the English people. According to John H. Rodgers, they "constitute the formal statements of the accepted, common teaching put forth by the Church of England as a result of the Reformation."
^abcdAnglican and Episcopal History. Historical Society of the Episcopal Church. 2003. p. 15.Others had made similar observations, Patrick McGrath commenting that the Church of England was not a middle way between Roman Catholic and Protestant, but "between different forms of Protestantism", and William Monter describing the Church of England as "a unique style of Protestantism, a via media between the Reformed and Lutheran traditions". MacCulloch has described Cranmer as seeking a middle way between Zurich and Wittenberg but elsewhere remarks that the Church of England was "nearer Zurich and Geneva than Wittenberg.
^abStrout, Shawn O. (29 February 2024).Of Thine Own Have We Given Thee: A Liturgical Theology of the Offertory in Anglicanism. James Clarke & Company. pp. 35–36.ISBN978-0-227-17995-6.
^abDoe, Norman; Coleman, Stephen (22 February 2024).The Legal History of the Church of England: From the Reformation to the Present. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 104.ISBN978-1-5099-7317-0.
^Jensen, Michael P. (7 January 2015)."9 Things You Should Really Know About Anglicanism".The Gospel Coalition. Retrieved3 February 2020.The theology of the founding documents of the Anglican church—the Book of Homilies, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion—expresses a theology in keeping with the Reformed theology of the Swiss and South German Reformation. It is neither Lutheran, nor simply Calvinist, though it resonates with many of Calvin's thoughts.
^Robinson, Peter (2 August 2012)."The Reformed Face of Anglicanism". The Old High Churchman. Retrieved3 February 2020.Cranmer's personal journey of faith left its mark on the Church of England in the form of a Liturgy that remains to this day more closely allied to Lutheran practice, but that liturgy is couple to a doctrinal stance that is broadly, but decidedly Reformed. ... The 42 Articles of 1552 and the 39 Articles of 1563, both commit the Church of England to the fundamentals of the Reformed Faith. Both sets of Articles affirm the centrality of Scripture, and take a monergist position on Justification. Both sets of Articles affirm that the Church of England accepts the doctrine of predestination and election as a 'comfort to the faithful' but warn against over much speculation concerning that doctrine. Indeed a casual reading of the Wurttemburg Confession of 1551, the Second Helvetic Confession, the Scots Confession of 1560, and the XXXIX Articles of Religion reveal them to be cut from the same bolt of cloth.
^"End Hunger Fast priest begins 40-day protest".BBC News. 5 March 2014. Retrieved9 February 2025.As part of the End Hunger Fast campaign, 43 Christian leaders, including 27 Anglican bishops, signed a letter urging David Cameron to ensure people get enough to eat.
^Christian Research,Religious Trends (2008), cited inRuth Gledhill, "Churchgoing on its knees as Christianity falls out of favour",The Times, 8 May 2008.
^ab"Statistics for Mission 2011"(PDF). The Church of England Research & Statistics. 2013.Archived(PDF) from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved29 December 2023.
^"General Synod".Church of England website. Archbishops' council of the Church of England. Archived fromthe original on 12 November 2004. Retrieved5 June 2010.
Lawson, Tom.God and War: The Church of England and Armed Conflict in the Twentieth Century (Routledge, 2016).
Maughan Steven S.Mighty England Do Good: Culture, Faith, Empire, and World in the Foreign Missions of the Church of England, 1850–1915 (2014)
Picton, Hervé.A Short History of the Church of England: From the Reformation to the Present Day. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2015. 180 p.
Rowlands, John Henry Lewis.Church, State, and Society, 1827–1845: the Attitudes of John Keble, Richard Hurrell Froude, and John Henry Newman. (1989). xi, 262 p.ISBN1-85093-132-1
Tapsell, Grant.The later Stuart Church, 1660–1714 (2012).
Milton, Anthony. The Oxford History of Anglicanism, 5 Vols, 2017.
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