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Christian feminism is a school ofChristian theology which uses the viewpoint of a Christian to promote and understand morally, socially, and spiritually theequality of men and women.[1] Christiantheologians argue that contributions by women and acknowledging women's value are necessary for a complete understanding ofChristianity. Christian feminists are driven by the belief that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically determined characteristics such as sex and race, but created all humans to exist in harmony and equality regardless of those factors.[2] On the other hand,Christian egalitarianism is used for those advocating gender equality and equity among Christians but do not wish to associate themselves with the feminist movement.
Christian feminists and scholars believe that interpretations of biblical texts as well as works of some religious figures may push sexist traits or responsibilities that if they are not acknowledged, may continue to perpetuate the patriarchy present in the church. The issues that arise from the patriarchy in the church include the discouraged ordination of women, the lack of equality in amarriage,abortion rights, the lack of recognition for women'sspirituality, and pushing a masculine image ofGod.[3][4][5][6] Concerns also exist over how women are handled in today's culture since they are expected to be subordinate to men, according to how early Christian religious writings are interpreted.[7] Despite that, women are continuing to pursue the goodness that the Christian faith teaches them and an example is Japan'sWoman's Christian Temperance Union. Through interpretations of biblical texts and writings of early religious figures, Christian feminists and scholars draw from these sources to argue bothsexism present in Christianity and the equality that should be present between men and women. These texts then present the inconsistencies of concepts that emerge between the writings of religious figures and the Bible.[8][1]
Some Christian feminists believe that the principle of egalitarianism was present in the teachings ofJesus and the early Christian movements such asMarianismo,[9] but this is a highly contested view by many feminist scholars who believe that Christianity itself relies heavily ongender roles.[10][by whom?] These interpretations of Christian origins have been criticized bysecular feminists for "anachronistically projecting contemporary ideals back into the first century."[11] In theMiddle AgesJulian of Norwich andHildegard of Bingen explored the idea of a divine power with both masculine and feminine characteristics.[12][13] Proto-feminist works from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries addressed objections to women learning, teaching and preaching in a religious context.[14] One such proto-feminist wasAnne Hutchinson who was cast out of thePuritan colony ofMassachusetts for teaching on the dignity and rights of women.[15]
Thefirst wave of feminism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries included an increased interest in the place of women in religion.[16] Women who were campaigning for their rights began to question their inferiority both within the church and in other spheres, which had previously been justified by church teachings.[17] Some Christian feminists of this period wereMarie Maugeret,Katharine Bushnell,Catherine Booth,Frances Willard.
During the 1960s and 1970s many evangelical women were influenced by thecivil rights movement.[10] Christian Feminists began writing and publishing articles concerning reproductive rights as well as inequality in marriage and in the religious hierarchy.[10] In response to these articles, groups such as the EWC orEvangelical Women's Caucus, and the ESA orEvangelicals for Societal Action were formed in order to create a social movement in the church to address such issues.[10]
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The division ofProtestant belief systems into different denominations allowed for women to acquire far more leadership positions in the church, as certain denominations then had the freedom to advocate for female leadership.[16] In both mainline and liberal branches ofProtestant Christianity, women are ordained asclergy. Even some theologically conservative denominations, such asThe Church of the Nazarene[18] andAssemblies of God,[19] ordain women as pastors. However, theRoman Catholic Church, theEastern Orthodox Church, theSouthern Baptist Convention (the largest Protestant denomination in the U.S.),[20] as well asthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and many churches in the AmericanEvangelical movement prohibit women from entering clerical positions.[21] Some Christian feminists believe that as women have greater opportunity to receive theological training, they will have greater influence on how scriptures are interpreted by those that deny women the right to become ministers.[22]
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Many of the Christian ideals concerning gender stem from interpretations of the Bible.[23] Christian feminists have often argued that the Bible is problematic, not because of the text itself, but because of the Christian scholars who have interpreted the scripture throughout time.[22] An example of these inconsistencies can be found in thecreation story of Adam and Eve; some Evangelicals believe that Adam and Eve were created at the same time, while others believe that Eve was made from the rib of Adam.[24] There is also wide debate within many Christian denominations over the fault of Eve concerning the consumption of theforbidden fruit, and the entrance of sin into the world.[24] Historically, a great deal of blame has been placed on Eve, but many Christian Feminists have worked to reframe the story, and shift the blame equally between both parties, as both partook of the fruit.[25] The story of Adam and Eve is just one example of a text which Christian feminists believe ispatriarchal in nature due to its interpretation.[26] Some Christian Feminists made the decision to abandon direct scriptural use in their fight for equality, while others relied on verses that opposed patriarchal ideals, pointing out the inconsistencies within the Bible.[27] The following passages act as examples of these inconsistencies.
Translations ofbiblical scriptures are examples where social hierarchy may influence the actual meaning of biblical scriptures. Although the pronounhim is often used in the scripture,Robert Alter, a Hebrew professor, argues that it is not "anatomically masculine."[30] These variations in pronouns may lead to exacerbating the division betweenfeminine and masculine roles and encourage the gender hierarchy. Furthermore, the separation between male and female is implied not only by the use of gendered pronouns, but also by the absence of representation of women and gendering qualities and tasks.Saint Augustine, a bishop of Hippo, wrote a tractate on John's Gospel and in the section about the Wisdom of God, he does not mention any female figure or femininity that theOld Testament regards withinWisdom literature.[31] While it is unclear the reason behind the absence of women being mentioned in Saint Augustine's tractates, modern scholars argue that this information is too crucial in understanding the Wisdom in the Old Testament to be omitted.[31]
On the other hand, by designating qualities to either be feminine or masculine, it creates expectations of how men and women must act. In theBook of Kings, they emphasize the role of mothers by the grief that they must display towards the death of their family members. Thus, even in royalty, the role of a mother is valued over queenship. For instance, in Samuel 2, whenBathsheba mourned the death of her son, she establishes her role as a mother. Then, as there are specific traits that are expected of women, if they fail to meet these qualities, then they are characterized as masculine.[30] Contrasting Bathsheba's display of her maternal role isAthaliah's massacre of the royals of Judah that led her to become the monarch for several years. Caused by her ruthlessness and headstrong personality, Athaliah is often described to display masculinity but also described as not being entirely masculine because of her identity as a woman.[30]
In general, many Christian feminist scholars argue that they envision a society in which female sexuality is not condemned by the church but acknowledged as a natural part of human existence.[32][failed verification] During theReformation, theologians such asMartin Luther andJohn Calvin stressed the importance ofchastity and marriage, leading to further repression of female sexuality within the Christian tradition.[33] Many Christian feminists have stated that men in powerful religious positions have often used the scriptures, and teachings from theologians such as Calvin and Luther to both dominate and repress women's sexuality, a problem which Christian feminists believe needs to be solved immediately.[32][failed verification]
In more contemporary thought about reproductive rights, pro-life feminism in the United States started in 1970, arguing that women's equality can be ensured without access to legal abortion and emphasized abortion as physically and/or psychological harmful to women rather than helpful.[34] During the 1970s the Feminists For Life (FFL) group argued that abortion was "a degradation of women and as an excuse for men seeking to exploit them."[34] Pat Goltz, a member of FFL, explained abortion as "'an insidious form of enslavement to the Playboy’s ‘right to [sex]’ [that] has no place in the women’s movement'."[34] FFL insisted that abortion allows men to avoid responsibility, such as paying child support.[34] During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the New Right emerged and made impressive collaborations with the pro-life movement through financial support and political capital.[34] Feminists for Life stated that their organization was nonsectarian and welcomed all religious beliefs, suggesting that individuals in the movement could hold Christian beliefs. However, the group's public position was broader than Christianity.[35]
In the 1990s, Mary Krane Derr and Rachel MacNair, both part of Feminists For Life, publicized that early theologically influenced feminists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who fought for women's right to vote, also argued against abortion.[34] Derr, a pro-life feminist, used selections from Stanton's writing on anti-abortion titledMan’s Inhumanity to Women Makes Countless Infants Die: The Early Feminist Case Against Abortion.[34] In this text, MacNair explains that early U.S feminists (first-wave feminists) “made clear that they regarded abortion as one of the greatest wrongs against women.” During the 1990s, the Feminist For Life movement also distributed a pamphlet called "Over a Century of Pro-life Feminism" discussing feminists from Elizabeth Cady Stanton to Margaret Sanger as pro-life advocates who desired "a society in which women can choose reproductive alternatives that are truly life-affirming for themselves and their children."[34] These writings by the FFL movement relied upon first wave feminists, who were anti-abortion based on theological arguments, to help support their modern pro-life feminist approach to abortion as a human rights issue rather than a theological issue.[35] Ultimately, FFL's approach to using first-wave feminist rhetoric shows how Christian values from the earliest feminist movement have influenced general arguments against abortion without specifically referencing Christianity. Pro-life feminist literature has reflected a range of religious influences as some scholars utilize theconsistent life ethic, viewing “human life as a continuum, from conception to natural death,” which refers to a Catholic moral doctrine articulated by Cardinal Joseph Bernardin of Chicago.[35]
At the turn of the 21st century, pro-life feminist and Harvard professor Mary Ann Glendon created Women Affirming Life (WAL), a Catholic pro-life group that desired to "define a new feminism" with many members of their group having background in law professions.[34] Biblically influenced pro-life feminist Glendon wrote an article in 2003 describingsecond wave feminism as authentic feminism and "presumably antiabortion" while arguing that the rise of pro-choice feminism in 1970s promoted "a puzzling combination of . . . anger against men and promiscuity; man-hating and man-chasing."[34]
However, conservative religious groups are often in conflict with mainstream feminist and liberal religious groups overabortion and the use ofbirth control. Scholars like sociologist Flann Campbell have argued that conservative religious denominations tend to restrictmale andfemale sexuality[36][37] by prohibiting or limiting birth control use[38] and condemning abortion assinfulmurder.[39][40] Some Christian feminists (likeTeresa Forcades) contend that a woman's "right to control her pregnancy is bounded by considerations of her own well-being" and that restricted access to birth control and abortion disrespects her God-givenfree will.[41]
Philosophy scholars Bruce P. Blackshaw and Nicholas Colgrove, along with health professional Daniel Rodger, argue thatanti-abortion arguments are often inconsistent.[42] The researchers find that anti-abortion activists often useovergeneralization in their arguments, causing them to believe that their belief applies to all women regardless of varying priorities, virtues, and beliefs. Moreover, they emphasize the importance of listening to various perspectives in especially in a topic such as abortion where these choices are made on a case-by-case basis. In addition, there may also be inconsistencies in the reasoning of pro-life activists as to why abortion is immoral. For instance, some may utilize Don Marquis' term, the "future of value," which entails assuming that the embryo will have potential contributions to society if carried until birth.[42]
A number of sociallyprogressive mainline Protestant denominations as well as certain Jewish organizations and the groupCatholics for a Free Choice have formed theReligious Coalition for Reproductive Choice.[43] The RCRC often works as a liberal feminist organization and in conjunction with other American feminist groups to oppose conservative religious denominations which, from their perspective, seek to suppress the natural reproductive rights of women.[44]
Some Christian feminists believe that gender equality within the church cannot be achieved without rethinking the portrayal and understanding ofGod as amasculine being.[41] The theological concept ofSophia, usually seen as replacing or synonymous with theHoly Spirit in theTrinity, is often used to fulfill this desire for symbols which reflect women's religious experiences.[45] How Sophia is configured is not static, but usually filled with emotions and individual expression.[14] For some Christian feminists, the Sophia concept is found in a search for women who reflect contemporary feminist ideals in both the Old and New Testament. Some figures used for this purpose include theVirgin Mary,Mary Magdalene,[46]Eve,[47] andEsther.[48] Others see God as entirely gender-transcendent,[49] or focus on the feminine aspects of God andJesus.[41] A female depiction of the Christ figure, known as Christa, recently arose in an attempt to allow for the power of the Christ figure to be applied to both the masculine and the feminine.[32][failed verification] Some Christian feminists use and promote gender-neutral or feminine language and imagery to describe God or Christ. Christian Feminists also call for a gender neutral reading of the Bible, as male pronouns are heavily used as compared to female pronouns throughout the text.[50] TheUnited Church of Christ describes itsNew Century Hymnal, published in 1995, as "the only hymnal released by a Christian church that honors in equal measure both male and female images of God."[51]
The following are a few translations of Greek Christian texts and biblical texts that show the roles that women partook in the Christianity and their actions that exemplify a follower of God.
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In addition to learning the importance of women in Christianity through biblical texts, learning also about how Christianity affects women in the contemporary timeframe is crucial. This section demonstrates how thepatriarchy interwoven into Christianity remains harmful to women even in contemporary society, whereas when Christianity is applied without implying the submission of women, it allows women to be able to fully participate in the religion.
In a research determining the effect of Christianity ondomestically abused women, more complications arise in São Paulo, Brazil, in dealing with domestic violence when these situations are dealt by people influenced by the patriarchy that has woven its way into Christianity. In addition, these women are also troubled by the abuse they have experienced due to the teachings of the Christian faith. For instance, a woman, Adriana, said that despite being abused by her husband who is a policeman, she felt unable to leave her husband as she believed that her marriage was blessed by God. Upon admitting her situation to a pastor and his wife, they told her that fervent prayer will answer her troubles. To change Adriana's perspective, Edna, a psychologist and a woman who also grew up in aPentecostal culture, helped Adriana navigate her husband's abuse and her faith. By doing so she allows Adriana as well as other women she has helped to reflect on whether the violence that they are receiving from their husbands is a situation that God would want them to remain in. In addition, there are religious figures such as pastors and priests that have told these abused women that their belief in God will bring change. Sometimes, these women are told that their abuse is caused by their own inadequacies.[7]
On the other hand, amidst the patriarchal history of Japan, Japanese women who have been politically involved by demanding equal treatment congregated and founded theWoman's Christian Temperance Union which allowed them to support one another and flourish in their careers. A notable member of the organization is Ushioda Chiseko, a charity activist whose altruistic pursuits were driven by her Christian faith. Her contributions include advocating the role of women socially and politically and helped impoverished women gain vocational skills. Another notable member of the organization isHani Motoko, who is known as the first female journalist in Japan. Through her participation in theWCTU, the organization helped Motoko gain attention to her works. Motoko's devotion to Christianity began when she enrolled in a Christian school. Later in her career as a writer, she wrote of a Christian orphanage that informed readers about how to help orphans have more resources and facilities through donations. Motoko also later established household reforms which promote that both men and women should share responsibilities in a home.[55]
The articles mentioned above give insights both about how women show their devotion through Christianity and its impact on their lives and also how women are treated by people of the faith. As these accounts only focus on certain groups of Christianity, they should not be treated as though they reflect all contemporary women's experience in Christianity.
There are a number of academic journals dedicated to promoting feminist theological scholarship. These include:
There have been multiple Popes, like PopeJohn Paul II andPope Francis, who have referenced a type of Feminism in their addresses to the public. Pope Francis is quoted saying the "irreplaceable role of the woman in the family ... [t]he gifts of -delicacy ... which are a richness of the feminine spirit, represent a genuine force for the life of the family ... without which the human vocation would be unrealizable."[59] Some men and women took Pope Francis words as a "vivid hope" that women will take a more prominent role in the Catholic Church.[60] These same women and men also believe that "Radical Feminism" is the cause for the teachings of then Pope John Paul II to be viewed as negative, they also believe that Pope John Paul II was taking great strides, at least for his time, to include women in the church.[61] 20th century figures likeDorothy Day andMother Teresa show the diversity of possibilities for women in modern Catholic community.
Another branch of Christianity that tends to be conservative on the role of women, especially women's ordination, isEastern Orthodoxy.
TheSouthern Baptist denomination has largely taken a complementarian position on women in recent years.
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