| Alcoholic drinks in China | |||||||||||||||
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 The courtyard of a Chinese vintner, including sealed jars ofhuangjiu being stored and aged | |||||||||||||||
| Chinese | 酒 | ||||||||||||||
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There is a long history ofalcoholic drinks in China.[1] They includerice and grapewine,beer, whisky and variousliquors includingbaijiu, the most-consumed distilled spirit in the world.
酒 (jiǔ) is theChinese character referring to anydrink containing appreciable quantities ofethanol. ItsOld Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as*tsuʔ,[2] at which point it was generally applied to drinks made from fermentedmillet. By the time of the first certain use ofdistillation during theJin andSouthern Song dynasties,[3] theMiddle Chinese pronunciation wastsjuw.[2] It is often translated in English as "wine", which misrepresents its current usage. In present-dayMandarin,jiǔ most commonly refers to pure alcohol, hard liquors, and strong rice wine, while wine and beer are distinguished aspútáojiǔ (葡萄酒,lit. "grapejiu") andpíjiǔ (啤酒, "'beer'jiu"), respectively.
Nonetheless, there are manycultural parallels with the use of wine in European culture.Chinese food employsjiǔ in its recipes and formal dining in an analogous manner; likewise, there are many parallels inupper-class etiquette and religious observance. It appears prominently in all of theChinese classics, including theRites of Zhou and theRecord of Rites, and has been a constant theme ofChinese poetry since its origins, all similar to the treatment of wine in Europe.[4]
Chinese alcohol predates recorded history. Dried residue extracted from 9,000-year-old pottery implies that earlybeers were already being consumed by theNeolithic peoples in the area of modern China. Made fromrice,honey,grapes, andhawthorn, it seems to have been produced similarly to that ofMesopotamia andAncient Egypt.[1]
Within theYellow River area which gave rise to theChinese culture, numerous bronze vessels preserved from the laterShang dynasty (whoseoracle bones contained the first survivingChinese characters) include many which were apparently used to warm alcohol.[5] At the time,millet was the area'sstaple grain and these drinks may have been similar to modernhuangjiu. Traditional Chinese historical accounts such asSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian relate variouslegends andmyths concerning the origin of alcohol in China. One account says that the brewerYidi presented the first alcoholic beverage as a gift to theemperorYu the Greatc. 2100 BC.[6] Another credits its invention toDu Kang.
Chinese alcohol figured prominently inZhou-era accounts of the removal of theMandate of Heaven. The final ruler of theXia dynasty, theemperorJie, was said to have shown his decadence by constructing an entire lake ofjiu to please one of his concubines. The pool was said to have been large enough to navigate with a boat. The story was repeated in accounts ofDi Xin, the last emperor of theShang.Alcoholism was said to have been so rampant amongShang culture that reducing it presented one of the principal difficulties for the newZhou dynasty.[7]
In the far northwest of modern China, the introduction of the irrigation and grape vines responsible forXinjiang'sraisin andwine production are generally credited to settlers from 4th-century BCBactria, one of the successor states to theempire ofAlexander the Great.[citation needed] However, new research has refuted the notions of a foreign origin for Chinese grape wine and grape vines, because the history of Chinese grape wine has been confirmed and proven to date back 9000 years (7000 BC), including the "(earliest attested use)" of wild grapes in wine as well as "earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world", according to Adjunct Professor of Anthropology Patrick McGovern, the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia.[8]
Professor McGovern explains:
The earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world was discovered at Jiahu in the Yellow River Valley of China (Henan province), ca. 7000-6600 B.C. (Early Neolithic Period). It was an extremefermented beverage made of wild grapes (the earliest attested use), hawthorn, rice, and honey. The Jiahu discovery illustrates how you should never give up hope in finding chemical evidence for a fermented beverage from the Palaeolithic period. Research very often has big surprises in store. You might think, as I did too, that the grape wines of Hajji Firuz, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia would prove to be the earliest alcoholic beverages in the world, coming from the so-called "Cradle of Civilization" in the Near East as they do. But then I was invited to go to China on the other side of Asia, and came back with samples that proved to be even earlier–from around 7000 BC."[8]
Following theYangtze's incorporation into the Chinese state during theQin dynasty, beer progressively disappeared from use over the course of theHan dynasty in favor of the strongerhuangjiu and therice wines of thesouthern Chinese. By theTang dynasty,home brewing seems to have been a familiar domestic chore, albeit the poor had to make do with poorly filteredmash (醅,pēi).[9] Thesticky rice-basedchoujiu dates to at least the Tang and was specially praised by the ChinesepoetLi Bai. The Dutch historianFrank Dikötter describes the period between the Han and Tang dynasties as a "golden age" for alcohol, when it was commonly consumed in conjunction with mineral drugs, notablyCold-Food Powder, until the "rise of a tea culture during the Tang was a significant shift away from heavier patterns of intoxication".[10]
As noted inShen Kuo's 11th-centuryDream Pool Essays, much of the socializing among thegentry concerned "drinking guests" (jiuke). A symposium beginning with drinking huangjiu might involve playing thezither andchess,Zenmeditation,calligraphy andpainting, drinkingtea,alchemy, and recitingpoetry, as well as general conversation.[11]
Distillation may have been practiced in China as early as thelater Han but the earliest evidence so far discovered has been dated to theJin andSouthern Song.[3] Astill dating to the 12th century was found during an archaeological dig atQinglong inHebei. Despite the popularity ofIslam in theMongol Empire and its growth within China during the MongolianYuan dynasty, the common consumption of distilled spirits such asbaijiu dates to the same era.[3]
Wine was reintroduced to China atMacao byPortuguese traders and missionaries, who produced small batches forcommunion.[citation needed] This connection is retained in theChinese transcription of the name Portugal,葡萄牙 orpútáoyá,lit. 'grape teeth'.[citation needed] The production and its effect was minor, prior to the opening of the country by the 19th-centuryFirst andSecond Opium Wars, after which European alcoholic beverages and methods of alcohol production were introduced throughout China. This European influence is particularly marked in the case of beer, whose modern Chinese namepijiu is aQing-eratranscription of theEnglishbeer andGermanBier. Two of the principal brewers in modern China,Tsingtao andHarbin, are named for the sites of the former major German and Russian breweries. Other establishments such as theEWO Brewery Ltd., (now owned bySuntory), grew up to serve demand for western beer in theShanghai International Settlement.
Wine remained unfamiliar in China untilDeng Xiaoping'spost-1978 reforms brought the country greater prosperity and greater integration into the world markets. From practically no consumption, it has already grown to either the fifth-[12] or seventh-largest[13] market for wine in the world with sales of 1.6 billion bottles during 2011,[13] annualized growth rates of 20% between 2006 and 2011,[12] and high future growth forecast.[12] 28th Concours Mondial de Bruxelles, which is a global wine competition is scheduled to held during May 2021, at Yinchuan, China. China ranked 7th in the last competition in organic wine segment, which held in 2019.[14][15][16]
Huangjiu or "yellow wine" is a fermented alcoholic beverage brewed directly from grains such asmillet,rice, andwheat. It is not distilled but typically has analcohol content around 15-20%. It is usually pasteurized, aged, and filtered prior to bottling. Despite its name,huangjiu may be clear, beige, or reddish as well as yellow. The Chinesemijiu, the predecessor of Japanesesake, is generally considered a form ofhuangjiu within China.
Huangjiu is further classified into various types, based on several factors. Among them are the drink's "dryness", thestarter used in its production, and the production method.
Baijiu orshaojiu is a Chineseliquor. It is usuallysorghum-based, but some varieties are distilled fromhuangjiu or otherrice-based drinks. All typically have an alcohol content greater than 30% and are so similar in color andfeel tovodka thatbaijiu is sometimes known as "Chinese vodka". There are many varieties, classified by theirfragrance, but most are only distilled once, permitting stronger flavors and scent than vodka. The prestige brand within China is the "sauce-scented"Moutai or Mao-t'ai, produced in the southern city ofMaotai inGuizhou. More common brands includeLuzhou Laojiao,Wuliangye and varieties oferguotou.
Modern Chinese beers derive from theRussian andGerman breweries established atHarbin andQingdao. Most arepale lagers, although other styles are available, particularly inbrewpubs catering to the expatriate communities inBeijing andShanghai.
The principal Chinese brands areTsingtao,Harbin, andSnow. Other major brewers includeYanjing,San Miguel,Zhujiang, andReeb.
Domestic production within China is dominated by a few large vineyards, includingChangyu Pioneer Wine,China Great Wall Wine, andDynasty Wine[17][18] Notable regions includeYantai,Beijing,Zhangjiakou inHebei,Yibin inSichuan,Tonghua inJilin,Taiyuan inShanxi, andNingxia. Yantai alone holds over 140 wineries and produces 40% of the country's wine.[17]
TraditionalUyghur wine fromXinjiang is known asmuseles (Arabic: المثلث,lit. "the triangle"). Its production requires crushing the grapes by hand, then straining them throughatlas silk and boiling the juice with an equal volume of water, as well as added sugar. This is cooked until the original volume of the juice is reached and then stored in clay urns along with various flavorings.
A controversial drink that is still nowadays sold in the black market of the country isTiger Bone Wine: this tonic is created crushing and mixing the bones with rice wine, in a long process that lasts for at least eight years. The drink has a high alcohol concentration, of about 58% and is used in both traditionalChinese Medicine andMartial Arts, and has been on the market for centuries.
Other fermented beverages includechoujiu (made fromsticky rice),lychee wine,gouqi jiu (made fromwolfberries),Qingke jiu (made fromTibetan highland barley), andkumis (made frommare oryak milk). Thepeach-scentedLuzhou Laojiao prides itself on continuous production since 1573 during theMing dynasty. The ginger-flavoredliqueurCanton is no longer produced in China but is instead imported for consumption in theUnited States from a distillery inFrance unrelated to its original production.
Whisky demand is on the rise inChina, but domestically produced whisky is limited.[19]
Chinese alcoholic beverages have a long history both as a part of diet and ceremonies (both secular and religious), as well as being a part of the productive activities of many households and commercial establishments.
Chinese alcoholic beverages were traditionally warmed before being consumed, a practice going back to the early dynastic period. The temperature to which the liquor may be warmed ranges between approximately 35 and 55 °C, well below theboiling point ofethanol. Warming the liquor allows its aromas to be better appreciated by the drinker without losing too much alcohol. The optimal temperature for warming depends on the type of beverage as well as the preference of the drinker.
Traditionally, also, the drinks are consumed together with food rather than on their own. Neither practice is binding in modern China.
In addition to being used to brew liquor, the seed mash described above can also be made to be eaten or drunk as a sweet dessert.
Traditional Chinese medicine frequently employed alcoholic drinks (associated withyin) and alcoholic drinks were likewise used as medicine. Alcohol including extracts of plants, herbs, animal parts, or minerals are not as common as they once were but may still be encountered. One example of such a medicinal alcoholic drink isrealgar wine: consumed during theDragon Boat Festival, realgar wine consisted ofhuangjiu mixed withrealgar, anarsenic sulfide also used as aninsecticide. It appears in the Chineselegend of the White Snake as the substance which forces the snake to reveal her true form. The drink was thought to prevent disease and misfortune (particularly snake bites anddigestive worms) and to promote health; although modern Chinese authorities discourage the practice, it is still legally available for consumption.
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