TheSilk Road trade routes crossed through Central Asia, leading to the rise of prosperous trade cities.[8][9] acting as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between Europe and theFar East.[10][11][12] Most countries in Central Asia are still integral to parts of the world economy.[13]
From the mid-19th century until near the end of the 20th century, Central Asia was colonised by theRussians, and incorporated into theRussian Empire, and later theSoviet Union, which led to Russians and otherSlavs migrating into the area. Modern-day Central Asia is home to a large population of descendants ofEuropean settlers, who mostly live in Kazakhstan: 7 million Russians, 500,000Ukrainians,[14][15][16] and about 170,000Germans.[17] During the Stalinist period, the forceddeportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union resulted in a population of over 300,000Koreans in the region.[18]
Central Asia has a population of about 72 million, in five countries: Kazakhstan (19 million), Kyrgyzstan (7 million), Tajikistan (10 million), Turkmenistan (6 million), and Uzbekistan (35million).[19]
Political map of Central Asia and theCaucasus (2000)
Political map of Central Asia including Afghanistan
One of the first geographers to mention Central Asia as a distinct region of the world wasAlexander von Humboldt. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Historically, political geography and culture have been two significant parameters widely used in scholarly definitions of Central Asia. Humboldt's definition comprised every country between 5° North and 5° South of the latitude 44.5°N.[clarification needed][20] Humboldt mentions some geographic features of this region, which include the Caspian Sea in the west, the Altai mountains in the north and the Hindu Kush and Pamir mountains in the South.[21] He did not give an eastern border for the region. His legacy is still seen:Humboldt University of Berlin, named after him, offers a course inCentral Asian studies.[22] The Russian geographer Nikolaĭ Khanykov questioned the latitudinal definition of Central Asia and preferred a physical one of all countries located in the region landlocked from water, includingAfghanistan,Khorasan (Northeast Iran),Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Uyghuristan (Xinjiang),Mongolia, andUzbekistan.[23][24][25]
Expanded definition of Central Asia. Core definition that includes the five post-Soviet states in dark green.Afghanistan, the most commonly added country to Central Asia, in green. Regions that are sometimes considered part of Central Asia in light green.Three sets of possible boundaries for the Central Asia region (which overlap with conceptions of South and East Asia).
Russian culture has two distinct terms:Средняя Азия (Srednyaya Aziya or "Middle Asia", the narrower definition, which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, Central Asian lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) andЦентральная Азия (Tsentralnaya Aziya or "Central Asia", the wider definition, which includes Central Asian lands that have never been part of historical Russia). The latter definition includes Afghanistan and 'East Turkestan'.[26]
The most limited definition was the official one of theSoviet Union, which defined Middle Asia as consisting solely of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, omittingKazakhstan. Soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the leaders of the four formerSoviet Central Asian Republics met inTashkent and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia.
In 1978,UNESCO defined the region as "Afghanistan, north-easternIran,Pakistan,northern India, western China, Mongolia and the Soviet Central Asian Republics".[27]
An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by EasternTurkic, EasternIranian, orMongolian peoples. These areas include Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Turkic regions of southernSiberia, the five republics, andAfghan Turkestan. Afghanistan as a whole, the northern and western areas of Pakistan and theKashmir Valley of India may also be included. TheTibetans andLadakhis are also included. Most of the mentioned peoples are considered the "indigenous" peoples of the vast region. Central Asia is sometimes referred to asTurkestan.[28][29][30]
Central Asia is a region of varied geography, including high passes andmountains (Tian Shan), vastdeserts (Kyzyl Kum,Taklamakan), and especially treeless, grassysteppes. The vast steppe areas of Central Asia are considered together with the steppes ofEastern Europe as a homogeneous geographical zone known as theEurasian Steppe.
Much of the land of Central Asia is too dry or too rugged for farming. TheGobi Desert extends from the foot of thePamirs, 77°E, to theGreat Khingan (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°–118°E.
Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to the diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia and can lead to rather significant international disputes.
Historic cities of Central Asia Kokand is one of the many towns that rose and fell in the Ferghana Valley
Central Asia is bounded on the north by the forests of Siberia. The northern half of Central Asia (Kazakhstan) is the middle part of theEurasian steppe. Westward the Kazakh steppe merges into the Russian-Ukrainian steppe and eastward into the steppes and deserts of Dzungaria and Mongolia. Southward the land becomes increasingly dry and the nomadic population increasingly thin. The south supports areas of dense population and cities wherever irrigation is possible. The main irrigated areas are along the eastern mountains, along theOxus andJaxartes Rivers and along the north flank of theKopet Dagh near the Persian border. East of the Kopet Dagh is the important oasis ofMerv and then a few places in Afghanistan likeHerat andBalkh. Two projections of theTian Shan create three "bays" along the eastern mountains. The largest, in the north, is eastern Kazakhstan, traditionally calledJetysu or Semirechye which containsLake Balkhash. In the center is the small but densely-populatedFerghana valley. In the south isBactria, later called Tocharistan, which is bounded on the south by theHindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan. TheSyr Darya (Jaxartes) rises in the Ferghana valley and theAmu Darya (Oxus) rises in Bactria. Both flow northwest into theAral Sea. Where the Oxus meets the Aral Sea it forms a large delta calledKhwarazm and later theKhanate of Khiva. North of the Oxus is the less-famous but equally importantZarafshan River which waters the great trading cities ofBokhara andSamarkand. The other great commercial city wasTashkent northwest of the mouth of the Ferghana valley. The land immediately north of the Oxus was calledTransoxiana and alsoSogdia, especially when referring to the Sogdian merchants who dominated the silk road trade.
To the east, Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin were united into the Manchu-Chinese province ofXinjiang (Sinkiang; Hsin-kiang) about 1759. Caravans from China usually went along the north or south side of the Tarim basin and joined atKashgar before crossing the mountains northwest to Ferghana or southwest to Bactria. A minor branch of the silk road went north of the Tian Shan through Dzungaria and Zhetysu before turning southwest near Tashkent. Nomadic migrations usually moved from Mongolia through Dzungaria before turning southwest to conquer the settled lands or continuing west toward Europe.
TheKyzyl Kum Desert or semi-desert is between the Oxus and Jaxartes, and theKarakum Desert is between the Oxus andKopet Dagh in Turkmenistan.Khorasan meant approximately northeast Persia and northern Afghanistan.Margiana was the region around Merv. TheUstyurt Plateau is between the Aral and Caspian Seas.
To the southwest, across the Kopet Dagh, lies Persia. From here Persian and Islamic civilisation penetrated Central Asia and dominated its high culture until the Russian conquest. In the southeast is the route to India. In early times Buddhism spread north and throughout much of history warrior kings and tribes would move southeast to establish their rule in northern India. Most nomadic conquerors entered from the northeast. After 1800 western civilisation in its Russian and Soviet form penetrated from the northwest.
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map at 1-km resolution for Central Asia (1991–2020)
Because Central Asia is landlocked and not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are often severe, excluding the hot, sunny summer months. In most areas, the climate is dry and continental, with hot summers and cool to cold winters, with occasional snowfall. Outside high-elevation areas, the climate is mostly semi-arid to arid. In lower elevations, summers are hot with blazing sunshine. Winters feature occasional rain or snow from low-pressure systems that cross the area from theMediterranean Sea. Average monthly precipitation is very low from July to September, rises in autumn (October and November) and is highest in March or April, followed by swift drying in May and June. Winds can be strong, producing dust storms sometimes, especially toward the end of the summer in September and October. Specific cities that exemplify Central Asian climate patterns includeTashkent andSamarkand, Uzbekistan,Ashgabat, Turkmenistan, andDushanbe, Tajikistan. The last of these represents one of the wettest climates in Central Asia, with an average annual precipitation of over 560 mm (22 inches).
As of 2022, there has been a scarcity of research on climate impacts in Central Asia, even though it experiences faster warming than the global average and is generally considered to be one of the moreclimate-vulnerable regions in the world.[34] Along withWest Asia, it has already had greater increases in hot temperature extremes than the other parts of Asia,[35]: 1464 Rainfall in Central Asia had decreased, unlike elsewhere in Asia, and the frequency and intensity ofdust storms had grown (partly due to poorland use practices).Droughts have already become more likely, and their likelihood is expected to continue increasing with greater climate change.[35]: 1465 By 2050, people in theAmu Darya basin may be faced with severe water scarcity due to both climate and socioeconomic reasons.[35]: 1486
Although, during the golden age of Orientalism the place of Central Asia in the world history was marginalised, contemporary historiography has rediscovered the "centrality" of the Central Asia. The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region madeagriculture difficult, and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus, few major cities developed in the region; instead, the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of thesteppe.
Relations between thesteppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited towarfare, and the steppehorse riders became some of the most militarily potent people in the world, limited only by their lack of internal unity. Any internal unity that was achieved was most probably due to the influence of theSilk Road, which traveled along Central Asia. Periodically, great leaders or changing conditions would organise several tribes into one force and create an almost unstoppable power. These included theHun invasion of Europe, theFive Barbariansrebellions in China and most notably theMongol conquest of much ofEurasia.[36]
During pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Central Asia was inhabited predominantly by speakers ofIranian languages.[6][37] Among the ancient sedentaryIranian peoples, theSogdians andChorasmians played an important role, while Iranian peoples such asScythians and the later onAlans lived a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle.
The mainmigration of Turkic peoples occurred between the 6th and 11th centuries, when they spread across most of Central Asia. TheEurasian Steppe slowly transitioned fromIndo European andIranian-speaking groups with dominant West-Eurasian ancestry to a more heterogeneous region with increasing East Asian ancestry through Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past thousands years, including extensive Turkic and later Mongol migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations.[38] In the 8th century AD, theIslamic expansion reached the region but had no significant demographic impact. In the 13th century AD, theMongolian invasion of Central Asia brought most of the region under Mongolian influence, which had "enormous demographic success", but did not impact the cultural or linguistic landscape.[39]
Once populated byIranian tribes and otherIndo-European speaking people, Central Asia experienced numerous invasions emanating out ofSouthern Siberia andMongolia that would drastically affect the region. Genetic data shows that the different Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples have between ~22% and ~70% East Asian ancestry (represented by "Baikal hunter-gatherer ancestry" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), in contrast to Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specificallyTajiks, which display genetic continuity toIndo-Iranians of theIron Age.[40][41] Certain Turkic ethnic groups, specifically theKazakhs, display even higher East Asian ancestry. This is explained by substantialMongolian influence on theKazakh genome, through significant admixture between blue eyes, blonde hair, the medievalKipchaks of Central Asia and the invading medieval Mongolians. The data suggests that theMongol invasion of Central Asia had lasting impacts onto the genetic makeup of Kazakhs.[42][43][44][45]
According to recentgenetic genealogy testing, the genetic admixture of the Uzbeks clusters somewhere between theIranian peoples and theMongols.[46] Another study shows that the Uzbeks are closely related to other Turkic peoples of Central Asia and rather distant from Iranian people. The study also analysed the maternal and paternal DNA haplogroups and shows that Turkic speaking groups are more homogenous than Iranian speaking groups.[47] Genetic studies analyzing the full genome of Uzbeks and other Central Asian populations found that about ~27-60% of the Uzbek ancestry is derived from East Asian sources, with the remainder ancestry (~40–73%) being made up by European and Middle Eastern components.[48][40][49] According to a recent study, the Kyrgyz, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens share more of their gene pool with various East Asian and Siberian populations than with West Asian or European populations, though the Turkmens have a large percentage from populations to the east, their main components are Central Asian.[50] The study further suggests that both migration and linguistic assimilation helped to spread the Turkic languages in Eurasia.[51]
TheTang dynasty of China expanded westwards and controlled large parts of Central Asia, directly and indirectly through their Turkic vassals. Tang China actively supported the Turkification of Central Asia, while extending its cultural influence.[52] The Tang Chinese were defeated by theAbbasid Caliphate at theBattle of Talas in 751, marking the end of the Tang dynasty's western expansion and the 150 years of Chinese influence. TheTibetan Empire would take the chance to rule portions of Central Asia and South Asia. During the 13th and 14th centuries, theMongols conquered and ruled the largest contiguous empire in recorded history. Most of Central Asia fell under the control of theChagatai Khanate.
The dominance of the nomads ended in the 16th century, asfirearms allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region.Russia,China, and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. TheQing dynasty gained control ofEast Turkestan in the 18th century as a result of along struggle with the Dzungars. The Russian Empireconquered the lands of thenomadic Kazakhs, Turkmens, Kyrgyz and Central Asiankhanates in the 19th century. A major revolt known as theDungan Revolt occurred in the 1860s and 1870s in the eastern part of Central Asia, andQing rule almost collapsed in all of East Turkestan. After theRussian Revolution, the western Central Asian regions were incorporated into theSoviet Union. The eastern part of Central Asia, known asXinjiang, wasincorporated into thePeople's Republic of China, having been previously ruled by theQing dynasty and theRepublic of China. Mongolia gained its independence from China and has remained independent but became a Sovietsatellite state until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Afghanistan remained relatively independent of major influence by the Soviet Union until theSaur Revolution of 1978.
The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw muchindustrialisation and construction of infrastructure, but also the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivisation programmes, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. Soviet authoritiesdeported millions of people, including entire nationalities,[53] from western areas of the Soviet Union to Central Asia andSiberia.[54] According to Touraj Atabaki and Sanjyot Mehendale, "From 1959 to 1970, about two million people from various parts of the Soviet Union migrated to Central Asia, of which about one million moved to Kazakhstan."[55]
In nearly all the new states, former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. None of the new republics could be considered functional democracies in the early days of independence, although in recent years Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan andMongolia have made further progress towards more open societies, unlike Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan, which have maintained many Soviet-style repressive tactics.[57]
At the crossroads of Asia,shamanistic practices live alongsideBuddhism. Thus,Yama, Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge.Mongolian Buddhism, in particular, was influenced byTibetan Buddhism. TheQianlong Emperor of Qing China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist and would sometimes travel fromBeijing to other cities for personal religious worship.
Saadi Shirazi is welcomed by a youth fromKashgar during a forum inBukhara.
Central Asia also has an indigenous form of improvisationaloral poetry that is over 1000 years old. It is principally practiced inKyrgyzstan andKazakhstan byakyns, lyrical improvisationalists. They engage inlyrical battles, theaytysh or thealym sabak. The tradition arose out of early bardicoral historians. They are usually accompanied by astringed instrument—in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringedkomuz, and in Kazakhstan, a similar two-stringed instrument, thedombra.
Photography in Central Asia began to develop after 1882, when aRussian Mennonite photographer named Wilhelm Penner moved to theKhanate of Khiva during the Mennonite migration to Central Asia led byClaas Epp, Jr. Upon his arrival toKhanate of Khiva, Penner shared his photography skills with a local student Khudaybergen Divanov, who later became the founder ofUzbek photography.[59]
Some also learn to sing theManas, Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn theManas exclusively but do not improvise are calledmanaschis). During Soviet rule,akyn performance was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity. With the fall of theSoviet Union, it has enjoyed a resurgence, althoughakyns still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. A 2005The Washington Post article proposed a similarity between the improvisational art ofakyns and modernfreestyle rap performed in the West.[60]
As a consequence of Russian colonisation, European fine arts – painting, sculpture and graphics – have developed in Central Asia. The first years of the Soviet regime saw the appearance of modernism, which took inspiration from the Russian avant-garde movement. Until the 1980s, Central Asian arts had developed along with general tendencies of Soviet arts. In the 90s, arts of the region underwent some significant changes. Institutionally speaking, some fields of arts were regulated by the birth of the art market, some stayed as representatives of official views, while many were sponsored by international organisations. The years of 1990–2000 were times for the establishment of contemporary arts. In the region, many important international exhibitions are taking place, Central Asian art is represented in European and American museums, and the Central Asian Pavilion at the Venice Biennale has been organised since 2005.
The traditional game ofBuzkashi is played throughout the Central Asian region, the countries sometimes organise Buzkashi competition amongst each other. The First regional competition among the Central Asian countries,Russia, ChineseXinjiang andTurkey was held in 2013.[61] The first world title competition was played in 2017 and won byKazakhstan.[62]
Wrestling is popular across Central Asia, with Kazakhstan having claimed 14 Olympic medals, Uzbekistan seven, and Kyrgyzstan three. As former Soviet states, Central Asian countries have been successful ingymnastics.
GDP growth trends in Central Asia, 2000–2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.1GDP in Central Asia by economic sector, 2005 and 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030, Figure 14.2GDP per capita development in Central Asia, since 1973
Since gaining independence in the early 1990s, the Central Asian republics have gradually been moving from a state-controlled economy to a market economy. However, reform has been deliberately gradual and selective, as governments strive to limit the social cost and ameliorate living standards. All five countries are implementing structural reforms to improve competitiveness. Kazakhstan is the only CIS country to be included in the 2020[63] and 2019[64] IWB World Competitiveness rankings. In particular, they have been modernizing the industrial sector and fostering the development of service industries through business-friendly fiscal policies and other measures, to reduce the share of agriculture in GDP. Between 2005 and 2013, the share of agriculture dropped in all but Tajikistan, where it increased while industry decreased. The fastest growth in industry was observed in Turkmenistan, whereas the services sector progressed most in the other four countries.[65]
Public policies pursued by Central Asian governments focus on buffering the political and economic spheres from external shocks. This includes maintaining a trade balance, minimizing public debt and accumulating national reserves. They cannot totally insulate themselves from negative exterior forces, however, such as the persistently weak recovery of global industrial production and international trade since 2008. Notwithstanding this, they have emerged relatively unscathed from the global financial crisis of 2008–2009. Growth faltered only briefly in Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan and not at all in Uzbekistan, where the economy grew by more than 7% per year on average between 2008 and 2013. Turkmenistan achieved unusually high 14.7% growth in 2011. Kyrgyzstan's performance has been more erratic but this phenomenon was visible well before 2008.[65]
The republics which have fared best benefitted from the commodities boom during the first decade of the 2000s. Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan have abundant oil and natural gas reserves and Uzbekistan's own reserves make it more or less self-sufficient. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan all have gold reserves and Kazakhstan has the world's largest uranium reserves. Fluctuating global demand for cotton, aluminium and other metals (except gold) in recent years has hit Tajikistan hardest, since aluminium and raw cotton are its chief exports − the Tajik Aluminium Company is the country's primary industrial asset. In January 2014, the Minister of Agriculture announced the government's intention to reduce the acreage of land cultivated by cotton to make way for other crops. Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan are major cotton exporters themselves, ranking fifth and ninth respectively worldwide for volume in 2014.[65]
Although both exports and imports have grown significantly over the past decade, Central Asian republics countries remain vulnerable to economic shocks, owing to their reliance on exports of raw materials, a restricted circle of trading partners and a negligible manufacturing capacity. Kyrgyzstan has the added disadvantage of being considered resource poor, although it does have ample water. Most of its electricity is generated by hydropower.[65]
The Kyrgyz economy was shaken by a series of shocks between 2010 and 2012. In April 2010, PresidentKurmanbek Bakiyev was deposed by a popular uprising, with former minister of foreign affairsRoza Otunbayeva assuring the interim presidency until the election ofAlmazbek Atambayev in November 2011.Food prices rose two years in a row and, in 2012, production at the major Kumtor gold mine fell by 60% after the site was perturbed by geological movements. According to the World Bank, 33.7% of the population was living in absolute poverty[clarification needed] in 2010 and 36.8% a year later.[65]
Despite high rates of economic growth in recent years, GDP per capita in Central Asia was higher than the average for developing countries only in Kazakhstan in 2013 (PPP$23,206) and Turkmenistan (PPP$14 201). It dropped to PPP$5,167 for Uzbekistan, home to 45% of the region's population, and was even lower for Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.[65]
Kazakhstan leads the Central Asian region in terms of foreign direct investments. The Kazakh economy accounts for more than 70% of all the investment attracted in Central Asia.[66]
In terms of the economic influence of big powers, China is viewed as one of the key economic players in Central Asia, especially after Beijing launched its grand development strategy known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013.[67]
The Central Asian countries attracted $378.2billion of foreign direct investment (FDI) between 2007 and 2019. Kazakhstan accounted for 77.7% of the total FDI directed to the region. Kazakhstan is also the largest country in Central Asia accounting for more than 60 percent of the region's gross domestic product (GDP).[68]
Central Asian nations fared better economically throughout theCOVID-19 pandemic. Many variables are likely to have been at play, but disparities in economic structure, the intensity of the pandemic, and accompanying containment efforts may all be linked to part of the variety in nations' experiences.[69][70] Central Asian countries are, however, predicted to be hit the worst in the future. Only 4% of permanently closed businesses anticipate to return in the future, with huge differences across sectors, ranging from 3% in lodging and food services to 27% in retail commerce.[69][71]
In 2022, experts assessed that global climate change is likely to pose multiple economic risks to Central Asia and may possibly result in many billions of losses unless proper adaptation measures are developed to counter growing temperatures across the region.[34][72]
Bolstered by strong economic growth in all butKyrgyzstan, national development strategies are fostering new high-tech industries, pooling resources and orienting the economy towards export markets. Many national research institutions established during the Soviet era have since become obsolete with the development of new technologies and changing national priorities. This has led countries to reduce the number of national research institutions since 2009 by grouping existing institutions to create research hubs. Several of theTurkmen Academy of Sciences's institutes were merged in 2014: the Institute of Botany was merged with the Institute of Medicinal Plants to become theInstitute of Biology and Medicinal Plants; the Sun Institute was merged with the Institute of Physics and Mathematics to become theInstitute of Solar Energy; and the Institute of Seismology merged with the State Service for Seismology to become theInstitute of Seismology and Atmospheric Physics. InUzbekistan, more than 10 institutions of the Academy of Sciences have been reorganised, following the issuance of a decree by the Cabinet of Ministers in February 2012. The aim is to orient academic research towards problem-solving and ensure continuity between basic and applied research. For example, the Mathematics and Information Technology Research Institute has been subsumed under theNational University of Uzbekistan and the Institute for Comprehensive Research on Regional Problems of Samarkand has been transformed into a problem-solving laboratory on environmental issues withinSamarkand State University. Other research institutions have remained attached to theUzbek Academy of Sciences, such as theCentre of Genomics and Bioinformatics.[65]
Kazakhstan andTurkmenistan are also building technology parks as part of their drive to modernise infrastructure. In 2011, construction began of a technopark in the village of Bikrova near Ashgabat, the Turkmen capital. It will combine research, education, industrial facilities, business incubators and exhibition centres. The technopark will house research on alternative energy sources (sun, wind) and the assimilation of nanotechnologies. Between 2010 and 2012, technological parks were set up in the east, south and north Kazakhstan oblasts (administrative units) and in the capital, Astana. A Centre for Metallurgy was also established in the east Kazakhstan oblast, as well as a Centre for Oil and Gas Technologies which will be part of the planned Caspian Energy Hub. In addition, the Centre for Technology Commercialisation has been set up in Kazakhstan as part of the Parasat National Scientific and Technological Holding, a joint stock company established in 2008 that is 100% state-owned. The centre supports research projects in technology marketing, intellectual property protection, technology licensing contracts and start-ups. The centre plans to conduct a technology audit in Kazakhstan and to review the legal framework regulating the commercialisation of research results and technology.[65]
Trends in research expenditure in Central Asia, as a percentage of GDP, 2001–2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: 2030 (2015), Figure 14.3
Countries are seeking to augment the efficiency of traditional extractive sectors but also to make greater use of information and communication technologies and other modern technologies, such as solar energy, to develop the business sector, education and research. In March 2013, two research institutes were created by presidential decree to foster the development of alternative energy sources in Uzbekistan, with funding from theAsian Development Bank and other institutions: the SPU Physical−Technical Institute (Physics Sun Institute) and theInternational Solar Energy Institute. Three universities have been set up since 2011 to foster competence in strategic economic areas:Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan (first intake in 2011), an international research university,Inha University in Uzbekistan (first intake in 2014), specializing in information and communication technologies, and theInternational Oil and Gas University in Turkmenistan (founded in 2013). Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are both generalizing the teaching of foreign languages at school, in order to facilitate international ties. Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan have both adopted the three-tier bachelor's, master's and PhD degree system, in 2007 and 2012 respectively, which is gradually replacing the Soviet system of Candidates and Doctors of Science. In 2010, Kazakhstan became the only Central Asian member of theBologna Process, which seeks to harmonise higher education systems in order to create a European Higher Education Area.[65]
Financial investment in research
The Central Asian republics' ambition of developing the business sector, education and research is being hampered by chronic low investment in research and development. Over the decade to 2013, the region's investment in research and development hovered around 0.2–0.3% of GDP. Uzbekistan broke with this trend in 2013 by raising its own research intensity to 0.41% of GDP.[65]
Kazakhstan is the only country where the business enterprise and private non-profit sectors make any significant contribution to research and development – but research intensity overall is low in Kazakhstan: just 0.18% of GDP in 2013. Moreover, few industrial enterprises conduct research in Kazakhstan. Only one in eight (12.5%) of the country's manufacturing firms were active in innovation in 2012, according to a survey by theUNESCO Institute for Statistics. Enterprises prefer to purchase technological solutions that are already embodied in imported machinery and equipment. Just 4% of firms purchase the license and patents that come with this technology. Nevertheless, there appears to be a growing demand for the products of research, since enterprises spent 4.5 times more on scientific and technological services in 2008 than in 1997.[65]
Central Asian researchers by sector of employment (HC), 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.5
Trends in researchers
Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan count the highest researcher density in Central Asia. The number of researchers per million population is close to the world average (1,083 in 2013) in Kazakhstan (1,046) and higher than the world average in Uzbekistan (1,097).[65]
Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian country where the business enterprise and private non-profit sectors make any significant contribution to research and development. Uzbekistan is in a particularly vulnerable position, with its heavy reliance on higher education: three-quarters of researchers were employed by the university sector in 2013 and just 6% in the business enterprise sector. With most Uzbek university researchers nearing retirement, this imbalance imperils Uzbekistan's research future. Almost all holders of a Candidate of Science, Doctor of Science or PhD are more than 40 years old and half are aged over 60; more than one in three researchers (38.4%) holds a PhD degree, or its equivalent, the remainder holding a bachelor's or master's degree.[65]
Central Asian researchers by field of science, 2013. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.4
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan have all maintained a share of women researchers above 40% since the fall of the Soviet Union. Kazakhstan has even achieved gender parity, with Kazakh women dominating medical and health research and representing some 45–55% of engineering and technology researchers in 2013. In Tajikistan, however, only one in three scientists (34%) was a woman in 2013, down from 40% in 2002. Although policies are in place to give Tajik women equal rights and opportunities, these are underfunded and poorly understood. Turkmenistan has offered a state guarantee of equality for women since a law adopted in 2007 but the lack of available data makes it impossible to draw any conclusions as to the law's impact on research. As for Turkmenistan, it does not make data available on higher education, research expenditure or researchers.[65]
PhDs obtained in science and engineering in Central Asia, 2013 or closest year
PhDs
PhDs in science
PhDs in engineering
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women
Per million pop.
Per million pop.
Kazakhstan (2013)
247
51
73
60
4.4
2.7
37
38
2.3
0.9
Kyrgyzstan (2012)
499
63
91
63
16.6
10.4
54
63
–
–
Tajikistan (2012)
331
11
31
–
3.9
–
14
–
–
–
Uzbekistan (2011)
838
42
152
30
5.4
1.6
118
27.0
–
–
Source:UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Table 14.1
Note: PhD graduates in science cover life sciences, physical sciences, mathematics and statistics, and computing; PhDs in engineering also cover manufacturing and construction. For Central Asia, the generic term of PhD also encompasses Candidate of Science and Doctor of Science degrees. Data are unavailable for Turkmenistan.
Central Asian researchers by field of science and gender, 2013 or closest year
Total researchers (head counts)
Researchers by field of science (head counts)
Natural Sciences
Engineering and technology
Medical and health sciences
Agricultural sciences
Social sciences
Humanities
Total
Per million pop.
Number of women
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Total
Women (%)
Kazakhstan (2013)
17,195
1,046
8,849
51.5
5,091
51.9
4,996
44.7
1,068
69.5
2,150
43.4
1,776
61.0
2 114
57.5
Kyrgyzstan (2011)
2,224
412
961
43.2
593
46.5
567
30.0
393
44.0
212
50.0
154
42.9
259
52.1
Tajikistan (2013)
2,152
262
728
33.8
509
30.3
206
18.0
374
67.6
472
23.5
335
25.7
256
34.0
Uzbekistan (2011)
30,890
1,097
12,639
40.9
6,910
35.3
4,982
30.1
3,659
53.6
1,872
24.8
6,817
41.2
6,650
52.0
Source:UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Table 14.1
Research output
Scientific publications from Central Asia catalogued by Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded, 2005–2014, UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.6
The number of scientific papers published in Central Asia grew by almost 50% between 2005 and 2014, driven by Kazakhstan, which overtook Uzbekistan over this period to become the region's most prolific scientific publisher, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). Between 2005 and 2014, Kazakhstan's share of scientific papers from the region grew from 35% to 56%. Although two-thirds of papers from the region have a foreign co-author, the main partners tend to come from beyond Central Asia, namely the Russian Federation, USA, German, United Kingdom and Japan.[65]
Five Kazakh patents were registered at the US Patent and Trademark Office between 2008 and 2013, compared to three for Uzbek inventors and none at all for the other three Central Asian republics, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan.[65]
Cumulative total of articles by Central Asians between 2008 and 2013, by field of science. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 14.6
Kazakhstan is Central Asia's main trader in high-tech products. Kazakh imports nearly doubled between 2008 and 2013, from US$2.7billion to US$5.1billion. There has been a surge in imports of computers, electronics and telecommunications; these products represented an investment of US$744million in 2008 and US$2.6billion five years later. The growth in exports was more gradual – from US$2.3billion to US$3.1billion – and dominated by chemical products (other than pharmaceuticals), which represented two-thirds of exports in 2008 (US$1.5billion) and 83% (US$2.6billion) in 2013.[65]
International cooperation
The five Central Asian republics belong to several international bodies, including theOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, theEconomic Cooperation Organization and theShanghai Cooperation Organisation. They are also members of theCentral Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC) Programme, which also includes Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China, Mongolia and Pakistan. In November 2011, the 10 member countries adopted theCAREC 2020 Strategy, a blueprint for furthering regional co-operation. Over the decade to 2020, US$50billion is being invested in priority projects in transport, trade and energy to improve members' competitiveness. The landlocked Central Asian republics are conscious of the need to co-operate in order to maintain and develop their transport networks and energy, communication and irrigation systems. Only Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan border theCaspian Sea and none of the republics has direct access to an ocean, complicating the transportation of hydrocarbons, in particular, to world markets.[65]
Kazakhstan is also one of the three founding members of theEurasian Economic Union in 2014, along with Belarus and the Russian Federation. Armenia and Kyrgyzstan have since joined this body. As co-operation among the member states in science and technology is already considerable and well-codified in legal texts, the Eurasian Economic Union is expected to have a limited additional impact on co-operation among public laboratories or academia but it should encourage business ties and scientific mobility, since it includes provision for the free circulation of labour and unified patent regulations.[65][73]
Kazakhstan and Tajikistan participated in the Innovative Biotechnologies Programme (2011–2015) launched by theEurasian Economic Community, the predecessor of theEurasian Economic Union, The programme also involved Belarus and the Russian Federation. Within this programme, prizes were awarded at an annual bio-industry exhibition and conference. In 2012, 86 Russian organisations participated, plus three from Belarus, one from Kazakhstan and three from Tajikistan, as well as two scientific research groups from Germany. At the time, Vladimir Debabov, scientific director of the Genetika State Research Institute for Genetics and the Selection of Industrial Micro-organisms in the Russian Federation, stressed the paramount importance of developing bio-industry. "In the world today, there is a strong tendency to switch from petrochemicals to renewable biological sources", he said. "Biotechnology is developing two to three times faster than chemicals."[65]
Kazakhstan also participated in a second project of the Eurasian Economic Community, the establishment of the Centre for Innovative Technologies on 4 April 2013, with the signing of an agreement between the Russian Venture Company (a government fund of funds), the Kazakh JSC National Agency and the Belarusian Innovative Foundation. Each of the selected projects is entitled to funding of US$3–90million and is implemented within a public–private partnership. The first few approved projects focused on supercomputers, space technologies, medicine, petroleum recycling, nanotechnologies and the ecological use of natural resources. Once these initial projects have spawned viable commercial products, the venture company plans to reinvest the profits in new projects. This venture company is not a purely economic structure; it has also been designed to promote a common economic space among the three participating countries.[65] Kazakhstan recognises the role civil society initiatives have to address the consequences of the COVID-19 crisis.[74]
Four of the five Central Asian republics have also been involved in a project launched by theEuropean Union in September 2013, IncoNet CA. The aim of this project is to encourageCentral Asian countries to participate in research projects withinHorizon 2020, the European Union's eighth research and innovation funding programme. The focus of this research projects is on three societal challenges considered as being of mutual interest to both the European Union and Central Asia, namely: climate change, energy and health. IncoNet CA builds on the experience of earlier projects which involved other regions, such as Eastern Europe, the South Caucasus and the Western Balkans. IncoNet CA focuses on twinning research facilities in Central Asia and Europe. It involves a consortium of partner institutions from Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, Portugal, Tajikistan, Turkey and Uzbekistan. In May 2014, the European Union launched a 24-month call for project applications from twinned institutions – universities, companies and research institutes – for funding of up to €10, 000 to enable them to visit one another's facilities to discuss project ideas or prepare joint events like workshops.[65]
TheInternational Science and Technology Center (ISTC) was established in 1992 by the European Union, Japan, the Russian Federation and the US to engage weapons scientists in civilian research projects and to foster technology transfer. ISTC branches have been set up in the following countries party to the agreement: Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. The headquarters of ISTC were moved to Nazarbayev University in Kazakhstan in June 2014, three years after the Russian Federation announced its withdrawal from the centre.[65]
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan have been members of theWorld Trade Organization since 1998, 2013 and 2015 respectively.[65]
Population pyramid of Central Asia in 2023Ethnic map of Central Asia. White areas are thinly-populated semi-desert. The three northwest-tending lines are the Syr Darya and Amu Darya Rivers flowing from the eastern mountains into the Aral Sea and in the south the irrigated north side of the Kopet Dagh mountains.Uzbek children inSamarkandChildren in Afghanistan
By a broad definition including Mongolia and Afghanistan, more than 90 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, onlyNorth Asia has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km2, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km2 of the continent as a whole. Kazakhstan is one of the least densely populated countries in the world.
Islam is the religion most common in the Central Asian Republics,Afghanistan, Xinjiang, and the peripheral western regions, such asBashkortostan. Most Central Asian Muslims areSunni, although there are sizableShia minorities inAfghanistan andTajikistan.
The form ofChristianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries wasNestorianism,[83] but now the largest denomination is theRussian Orthodox Church, with many members in Kazakhstan, where about 25% of the population of 19 million identify as Christian, 17% in Uzbekistan and 5% in Kyrgyzstan.Pew Research Center estimates indicate that in 2010, around 6 millionChristians lived in Central Asian countries, the Pew Forum study finds that Kazakhstan (4.1 million) has the largest Christian population in the region, followed by Uzbekistan (710,000), Kyrgyzstan (660,000), Turkmenistan (320,000) and Tajikistan (100,000).[84]
Tartar prostrating beforeQianlong Emperor of China (1757).[85]Political cartoon from the period of theGreat Game showing the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Imperial Russia and the United Kingdom (1878)Islam Karimov (President, Uzbekistan) inthe Pentagon, March 2002
Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus, it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers than as a power in its own right.
Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes to and from all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated.
To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian Empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan.
To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia since theSilk Road period ofHan dynasty. However, with the Sino-Soviet split and collapse of Soviet Union, China would project its soft power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region.
To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, theHindu Kush, and slightly beyond. From its base in India, theBritish Empire competed with the Russian Empire for influence in the region in the 19th and 20th centuries.
To the Southwest, West Asian powers have expanded into the southern areas of Central Asia (usually Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Turkmenistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region;[86] and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well. Turkey, through a commonTurkic nation identity, has gradually increased its ties and influence as well in the region. Furthermore, since Uzbekistan announced their intention to join in April 2018, Turkey and all of the Central Asian Turkic-speaking states except Turkmenistan are together part of theTurkic Council.[87]
In the post–Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States:
Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the former SSRs; although, as other countries move into the area, Russia's influence has begun to wane though Russia still maintains military bases inKyrgyzstan andTajikistan.[88]
The United States, with its military involvement in the region and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.[86] The United States and other NATO members were the main contributors to theInternational Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan during theIslamic Republic period and also exert considerable influence in other Central Asian nations.
India has geographic proximity to the Central Asian region and, in addition, enjoys considerable influence on Afghanistan.[90][91] India maintains a military base atFarkhor, Tajikistan, and also has extensive military relations with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan.[92]Leaders present at theSCO summit inSamarkand, Uzbekistan, in 2022
Turkey also exerts considerable influence in the region on account of its ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia and its involvement in theBaku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline. Political and economic relations are growing rapidly (e.g., Turkey recently eliminated visa requirements for citizens of the Central Asian Turkic republics).
Iran, the seat of historical empires that controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region and is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.
Pakistan, a nuclear-armed Islamic state, has a history of political relations with neighbouring Afghanistan and is termed capable of exercising influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeksnatural gas from Central Asia and supports the development of pipelines from its countries. According to an independent study,Turkmenistan is supposed to be the fifth largest natural gas field in the world.[93] The mountain ranges and areas in northern Pakistan lie on the fringes ofGreater Central Asia; theGilgit–Baltistan region of Pakistan lies adjacent to Tajikistan, separated only by the narrow AfghanWakhan Corridor. Being located on the northwest of South Asia, the area forming modern-day Pakistan maintained extensive historical and cultural links with the central Asian region.
Japan has an important and growing influence in Central Asia, with the master plan of the capital city of Astana in Kazakhstan being designed by Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa, and theCentral Asia plus Japan initiative designed to strengthen ties between them and promote development and stability of the region.
The region, along with Russia, is also part of "the great pivot" as per theHeartland Theory ofHalford Mackinder, which says that the power which controls Central Asia—richly endowed with natural resources—shall ultimately be the "empire of the world". For example, the region is endowed with various mineral resources such aschromium,cobalt,zinc,copper,silver,lithium,lead,molybdenum and many others making it a potential major global supplier of critical materials for clean energy technologies.[95]
War on Terror
In the context of the United States'War on Terror, Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S. government toMajor non-NATO ally because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt onOsama bin Laden.
Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda under the protection ofMullah Omar and theTaliban, was the target of aU.S. invasion in 2001 and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region.
Western governments have accused Russia, China and the former Soviet republics of justifying the suppression of separatist movements, and the associated ethnics and religion with the War on Terror.
The capital and second largest city in Kazakhstan. After Kazakhstan gained its independence in 1991, the city and the region were renamed from Tselinograd to Aqmola. The name was often translated as "White Tombstone", but actually means "Holy Place" or "Holy Shrine". The "White Tombstone" literal translation was too appropriate for many visitors to escape notice in almost all guide books and travel accounts. In 1994, the city was designated as the future capital of the newly independent country and again renamed to the Astana after the capital was officially moved fromAlmaty in 1997. In 2019 the city was renamed to Nur-Sultan to honor the resigned president, but was reverted to Astana in 2022.
It was the capital of Kazakhstan (and its predecessor, theKazakh SSR) from 1929 to 1998. Despite losing its status as the capital, Almaty remains the major commercial center of Kazakhstan. It is a recognised financial center of Kazakhstan and the Central Asian region.
The capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative center ofChüy Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.
The second largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Osh is also the administrative center ofOsh Region, which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the region, but rather a region-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.
The capital and largest city of Tajikistan. Dushanbe means "Monday" inTajik andPersian,[103] and the name reflects the fact that the city grew on the site of a village that originally was a popular Mondaymarketplace.
The capital and largest city of Turkmenistan. Ashgabat is a relatively young city, growing out of a village of the same name established byRussians in 1818. It is not far from the site ofNisa, the ancient capital of theParthians, and it grew on the ruins of theSilk Road city of Konjikala, which was first mentioned as a wine-producing village in the 2nd century BC and was leveled by an earthquake in the 1st century BC (a precursor of the1948 Ashgabat earthquake). Konjikala was rebuilt because of its advantageous location on the Silk Road, and it flourished until its destruction by Mongols in the 13th century AD. After that, it survived as a small village until the Russians took over in the 19th century.[104][105]
The nation's fifth-largest city and the capital of theBukhara Region of Uzbekistan. Bukhara has been one of the main centers of Persian civilisation from its early days in the 6th century BC, and, since the 12th century AD, Turkic speakers gradually moved in. Its architecture and archaeological sites form one of the pillars of Central Asian history and art.
Kokand (Uzbek:Qo'qon,Қўқон;Tajik:Хӯқанд;Persian:خوقند;Chagatai: خوقند;Russian:Коканд) is a city inFergana Region in easternUzbekistan, at the southwestern edge of theFergana Valley. It has a population of 192,500 (1999 census estimate). Kokand is 228km southeast ofTashkent, 115km west ofAndijan, and 88km west ofFergana. It is nicknamed "City of Winds", or sometimes "Town of the Boar".
The second largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital ofSamarqand Region. The city is most noted for its central position on theSilk Road betweenChina and the West, and for being an Islamic center for scholarly study. It was here that the rulerUlugh Beg (1394–1449) built a gigantic astronomical observatory.[106]
The capital and largest city of Uzbekistan. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the town and the region were known as Chach. Tashkent started as anoasis on theChirchik River, near the foothills of theGolestan Mountains. In ancient times, this area contained Beitian, probably the summer "capital" of theKangju confederacy.[107]
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