Maps ofJerusalem can be categorised between original factual maps, copied maps and imaginary maps, the latter being based on religious books.[1] The maps were produced in a variety of materials, includingparchment,vellum,mosaic,wall paintings andpaper.[2] Most extant maps known to scholars from the pre-modern era were prepared by Christian mapmakers for a Christian European audience.[3][4] All maps marking milestones in the cartography of Jerusalem are listed here following thecartographic histories of the city, fromTitus Tobler andReinhold Röhricht's studies in the 19th century to those ofHebrew University of Jerusalem academicsRehav Rubin and Milka Levy-Rubin in recent decades. The article lists maps that progressed the cartography of Jerusalem before the rise of modern surveying techniques, showing how mapmaking and surveying improved and helped outsiders to better understand the geography of the city. Imaginary maps of the ancient city and copies of existing maps are excluded.
TheMadaba Map discovered in modern-dayJordan is the oldest known map of Jerusalem,[2] in the form of a mosaic in a Greek Orthodox Church. At least 12 maps survive from the Catholic mapmakers of theCrusades; they were drawn on vellum and mostly show the city as a circle.[2][5] Approximately 500 maps are known between the late-1400s and the mid-1800s; the significant increase in number is due to the advent of theprinting press. The first printed map of the city was drawn byErhard Reuwich and published in 1486 byBernhard von Breydenbach in hisPeregrinatio in Terram Sanctam, based on his pilgrimage of 1483.[2] Few of the mapmakers had travelled to Jerusalem – most of the maps were either copies of others' maps or were imaginary (i.e. based on reading of religious texts) in nature.[6] The first map based on actual field measurements was published in 1818 by the Czech mapmakerFranz Wilhelm Sieber.[2][7] The first map based on modern surveying techniques was published byCharles Wilson in 1864–65 for the BritishOrdnance Survey.[2][8]
| Date | Title | Cartographer | Comments | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| c. 560–565[9] | Madaba Map | unknown | The earliest known map of Jerusalem, and oldest known geographic floor mosaic in art history.[10] The mosaic was discovered in 1884, but no research was carried out until 1896.[10][11] It has been heavily used for the localisation and verification of sites inByzantine Jerusalem, such as theDamascus Gate, theLions' Gate, theGolden Gate, theZion Gate, theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre and theTower of David; in 1967, excavations revealedThe Nea church and theCardo Maximus (the road depicted in the map that runs through the centre of Jerusalem) in the locations suggested by the Madaba Map.[12][13] |  |
| c. 680[14] | Arculf map | Arculf viaAdomnán | Ground plan from the first book ofDe Locis Sanctis. The map shows relevant Christian sites in relation to each other.[14] The earliest known manuscript dates from the ninth century, two centuries after Arculf's journey.[15] It was the oldest known map of Jerusalem prior to the discovery of the Madaba map.[16] Arculf spent nine months in Jerusalem before transmitting the story of his travels to Adomnán, for the benefit of other pilgrims. Adomnán wrote that Arculf had drawn his maps and plans on wax tablets.[15] Not all the known manuscripts of the text include the maps and plans.[15] |  |
| c. 785 | Umm ar-Rasas mosaics | unknown | Part of the mosaic floor at the center of theUmm ar-Rasas Byzantine St. Stephen's church depicting Jerusalem, identifying it as Hagia Polis in Greek, the Holy City. The mosaic floor depicts eight cities west of theJordan River, Jerusalem being the first one, while the right side depicting seven cities east of the Jordan River, and the inner corners depicting cities of theNile Delta. The entire mosaic appears to have been completed during theAbbasid Caliphate.[17] |  |
The Crusader maps were first catalogued in the late 19th century byReinhold Röhricht;[18] he catalogued eight maps, which he labelled (1) Brüssel, (2) Copenhagen, (3) Florenz?, (4) Haag, (5) München (6) St. Omer, (7) Paris and (8) Stuttgart.[19] Map (3) was later identified as the Uppsala map,[18] and map (5) is the Arculf map (see section above).[16][19] Today, at least 12 such maps are known.[2][5]
A majority of the crusader maps are known as "round maps”, showing the city as a perfect circle, considered to symbolize the “ideal city”.[20] These maps have unique features, but they are all related; it is likely that there was an original prototype from which these maps were derived.[21] Four of the earlier round maps are associated with theGesta Francorum; it has been suggested that illustrating this text may have been the purpose of the prototype round map.[22] All the round maps are east-facing, like theT and O maps of the world to which they show a number of similarities, have five gates in non-symmetrical locations, and show the actual basic street plan of Jerusalem.[21] The maps show two central roads in the shape of a cross, likely to represent the Romancardo anddecumanus, with an additional street leading toYehoshafat's Gate and – in most but not all – a fourth street starting at St. Stephen's Gate.[21]
| Date | Title | Cartographer | Comments | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1140s[23] | Cambrai map | unknown | From theMédiathèque d'agglomération de Cambrai. It is considered to be the most accurate of the Crusader maps,[24] highly likely to be based on direct knowledge.[23] The walls of the city are shown in the shape of arhomboid, from anelevation perspective.[23] The map provides names for gates and towers, shows some main streets, and marks the main buildings and churches.[23] The Holy Sephulchre is shown in its new Crusader form and labelled "Anastasis", theAl Aqsa Mosque is labelled "Domus Militum Templi", and numerous eastern churches are shown –Mar Saba,Chariton'slavra,St George,St Abraham,St Bartholomew, and the Jacobite church of St Mary Magdalene.[24] |  |
| c. 1150[25] | Brussels map | unknown | A round map in decorative style with miniatures of pilgrims.[26] The map is from theRoyal Library of Belgium, dated to the mid 12th century.[27] | .png) |
| c. 1170[25] | Hague map | unknown | The most famous of eleven round Crusader maps.[28] The map is in decorative style with miniatures of fighting crusaders.[26] |  |
| 1100s[29] | Paris map | unknown | A round map with detailed pictures of buildings.[26] It is one of four crusader maps with a connection to theGesta Francorum,[30] from a copy of theLiber Floridus held in theBibliothèque nationale de France it carries part of the text from theGesta Francorum around and within the map.[30] Thought to be from the 12th century.[29] |  |
| 1100s[18] | Uppsala map | unknown | Another of the four round maps with a connection to theGesta Francorum.[30] It is located in a manuscript betweenRobert the Monk'sHistoria Hierosolymitana and theGesta Francorum (presented as the 10th book of theHistoria Hierosolymitana),[31] held in theUppsala University Library. It was rediscovered in 1995.[18] |  |
| 1100s[19] | Saint Omer map | unknown | A round map from a copy of theGesta Francorum held in the French town ofSaint-Omer.[19] |  |
| c. 1200 | London map | unknown | From a miscellaneous set of manuscripts in theBritish Library. It is another of the four round maps with a connection to theGesta Francorum; it carries part of the text from theGesta Francorum around and within the map.[30] |  |
| c. 1200 | Codex Harley map | unknown | From theBritish Library'sHarleian Library. The map represents the itinerary of a pilgrim, with Jerusalem as its highlight.[32] It is unrelated to the other round maps, as it has only four symmetrical gates, and has no crossroads. The map "has no pretense of accuracy", but rather presents "the author's conception of his journey".[32] |  |
| c. 1200s | Montpellier map | unknown | Held in theUniversity of Montpellier library. The map is north-facing, is the only crusader map in a square shape, and includes a description of crusader forces arrayed outside the walls of the city.[24] The sites identified on the map – various sites of thePassion of Jesus, the site whereHelena found the cross, and thenavel of the earth – are in locations "only remotely related to reality".[24] |  |
| c. 1250[33] | Matthew Paris map | Matthew Paris | Pilgrimage map fromChronica Majora. It is likely to have been based on a set ofitineraries.[33] |  |
| 1300s[34] | Copenhagen map | unknown | A round map in northern European style.[26] The annotations were probably made byHaukr Erlendsson.[34] | .jpg) |
| 1300s[35] | Stuttgart map | unknown | A round map from theWürttembergische Landesbibliothek. It was originally acquired from theZwiefalten Abbey, and is thought to be from the 14th century.[35] |  |
| 1321[36] | Sanudo-Vesconte map | Pietro Vesconte | Published inLiber Secretorum. The work was intended to rekindle the spirit of thecrusades. It is considered likely that the cartography dates from prior to the Crusaders'final loss of Jerusalem in 1244.[37] The map focuses on the city's water supply.[36] The map ”has no obvious precursor” in map form; it is thought to have used texts fromJosephus andBurchard of Mount Sion.[36] |  |
| Date | Title | Cartographer | Comments | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1472[38] | Comminelli map | Pietro del Massaio | Map prepared forAlfonso II of Naples. It was one of a number of maps to accompanyJacopo d'Angelo's Latin translation of Ptolemy'sGeography, copied by Frenchcopyist Hugo Comminelli and illustrated by the Florentine cartographerPietro del Massaio.[38] It is considered a "realistic" map, but includes a number of imaginary historical elements. Contemporary elements in the map include theMuristan, labelled "Hospicium Peregrinorum" and theDome of the Rock with an Islamic crescent on top, labelled "Templum Solomonis", whilst imaginary elements include the centre of the world ("mundi medium") located at the Holy Sepulchre.[39] |  |
| 1475[40] | Rieter map | Sebald Rieter | Considered to be the first known "Franciscan map" of Jerusalem. The map depicts Jerusalem from the viewpoint of theMount of Olives.[40] TheFranciscan order, which had been appointed by theVatican ascustodians of the Holy Places in 1342, was devoted to spreading knowledge of the city. Many of the city's primary buildings are drawn "fairly accurately".[40] Rieter and his companionHans Tucher were pilgrims fromNuremberg; the text is a mixture of Latin and Italian.[41] Theal-Aqsa Mosque is labeled as the "Church of the Saracens" (Ecclesie Sarazeni).[42] |  |
| 1483–86[2] | Reuwich map | Erhard Reuwich | First printed map of Jerusalem. It was published byBernhard von Breydenbach inMainz (where theprinting press had been invented) in hisPeregrinatio in Terram Sanctam.[2] The map is set "vastly out of scale" in a map of the wider Holy Land.[43] |  |
| 1578[44] | de Angelis map | Friar Antonino de Angelis | The most influential Franciscan map of Jerusalem, copied by numerous subsequent mapmakers. The map, engraved byMario Cartaro and printed at theSanta Maria in Ara Coeli inRome, was rediscovered in 1981.[44][45] |  |
| 1608[46] | Willenberg map | Johann Willenberg | Published inKryštof Harant'sJourney from Bohemia to the Holy Land, by way of Venice and the Sea. It was the first Czechtravelogue of Palestine; Harant measured theHoly Sepulchre in detail, comparing it to Prague'sSt. Vitus Cathedral.[46] |  |
| 1620[47] | Amico map | Bernardino Amico | A corrected version of the de Angelis map. The map was made by de Angelis's successor as the official Franciscan mapmaker. The work was published in 1620 in a detailed survey of the Holy LandTrattato delle Piante & Imagini de Sacri Edificii di Terra Santa, disegnate in Gierusalemme [Treatise on the Plans & Images of Sacred Buildings of the Holy Land, drawn in Jerusalem].[44][47] |  |
| 1621[48] | Deshayes map | Louis Deshayes | The firstprinted map to map to present the city from a verticalbird's-eye view. The work was published in 1624, inVoyage du Levant, fait par le commandement du roi en 1621, detailing Deshayes' journey to the region under the orders ofLouis XIII.[48] |  |
| 1634[49] | Munich map | unknown | Proskynetarion produced in Jerusalem andMar Saba. It is the oldest known 17th and 18th century Greek Orthodox map of Jerusalem.[50] The author is identified as a Jerusalem-based monk fromCrete named Akakios (Ἀκακίου ἱερομοναχοῦ τοῦ Κρητὸς).[51] Like most such Greek Orthodox maps, theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre is a central and outsized component of the map.[52] The map is a south-facing birds eye-view of an oval-shaped Jerusalem, showing realistic depictions of a number of the city's main buildings. TheIslamic crescent is shown on top of a number of structures, including theDome of the Rock.[53] |  |
| 1728[54] | De-Pierre Map | De Pierre | Considered to be a comparatively accurate depiction, with an unusual focus on Christian monasteries in and around Jerusalem.[54] The map was drawn by an otherwise unknown pilgrim fromVienna, signedDe Pierre Eques S.S. Sepulchri. It is likely to have been copied from a map published in the same year byPatriarchChrysanthus of Jerusalem.[55] The map was dedicated to empressElisabeth Christine, the wife ofCharles VI, Holy Roman Emperor.[54] |  |
| Date | Title | Cartographer | Comments | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1818[7] | Sieber map | Franz Sieber | First map based on actual field measurements.[7] It has been described as "the first modern mapping" of Jerusalem.[56] The map was based on 200accurate and precise geometric points, such that the wall, the Kidron valley and certain mosques were shown correctly, but some city streets and valleys were not drawn correctly, some buildings and some features were included where they did not exist.[56] |  |
| 1835[7] | Catherwood map | Frederick Catherwood | Second map based on actual field measurements,[7] and the first to have used measurements for the interior of the Temple Mount.[57] Travel to the region became easier after the1831–33 Egyptian–Ottoman War; the survey of the area undertaken by Catherwood and his companionsJoseph Bonomi andFrancis Arundale was to be "the first important contribution to knowledge of the area" for the subsequent flood oftravellers to the area.[58] Catherwood supplemented a general survey with a detailed outline of the city recorded with aCamera lucida, prepared from the roof of the House of Pontius Pilate.[59] Although never published in book form, Catherwood's maps were used frequently by other scholars, notably inEdward Robinson'sBiblical Researches.[60] |  |
| 1841[61] | Royal Engineers map | Edward Aldrich andJulian Symonds | Created during theOriental Crisis of 1840. The map was published in 1849 with permission of theMaster-General of the Ordnance, theMarquess of Anglesey.[61] The map was printed privately for the Board of Ordnance in August 1841, and was published in a reduced form in Alderson's ‘’Professional Papers of the Royal Engineers’’ in 1845[62] and subsequently as a supplement to the 1849 second edition of George Williams’The Holy City: Historical, Topographical, and Antiquarian Notices of Jerusalem together with a 130-page memoir on the plan.[63][64] The memoir contained a three-page appendix defending the plan from criticism byEdward Robinson.[63] |  |
| 1845[65] | Kiepert map | Heinrich Kiepert | Based on the Royal Engineers' map, together with data fromErnst Gustav Schultz, who had been the Prussian consul since 1842.[65] It was published as part of Schultz's lecture to theGesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin. It shows the contemporary city with biblical overlays.[65] |  |
| 1858[66] | Van de Velde map | Charles van de Velde | One of the most accurate maps published prior to the Ordnance Survey.[66] Van de Velde metTitus Tobler in Switzerland in 1855, where they agreed to make a new map of Jerusalem based on combining Tobler's own measurements with the flawed Royal Engineers map of 1840–41. Tobler published a 26-page memoir to accompany the map.[67] |  |
| 1864–65[2] | Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem | Charles Wilson | First map using modern surveying techniques,[2][8] and the firstOrdnance Survey to take place outside the United Kingdom.[68] It produced "the first perfectly accurate map [of Jerusalem], even in the eyes of modern cartography",[69] and identified the eponymousWilson's Arch. The survey provided the foundation and impetus for the creation of thePalestine Exploration Fund.[70] The cost of providing the Royal Engineers surveyors was covered by the British Government'sWar Office,[68] while the survey itself was funded byAngela Burdett-Coutts.[70] |  |
| 1873[71] | Illés Relief | Stephen Illés | The first scientific relief model of the city.[72] It was constructed between 1864 and 1873 for the1873 Vienna World's Fair, from molten and beatenzinc at1:500scale.[71] It was displayed for more than 40 years at Geneva'sCalvinium, when it was moved into storage in 1920 to make way for theLeague of Nations; rediscovered in 1984, it has been exhibited at theTower of David Museum in Jerusalem since the 1990s.[71] |  |
It was only Abuna Kleofas Kikilides who realised the true significance, for the history of the region, that the map had while visiting Madaba in December 1896. A Franciscan friar of ltalian-Croatian origin born in Constantinople, Fr. Girolamo Golubovich, helped Abuna Kleofas to print a booklet in Greek about the map at the Franciscan printing press of Jerusalem. Immediately afterwards, the Revue Biblique published a long and detailed historic-geographic study of the map by the Dominican fathersM.J. Lagrange andH. Vincent after visiting the site themselves. At the same time.Father J. Germer-Durand of theAssumptionist Fathers published a photographic album with his own pictures of the map. In Paris,C. Clermont-Gannau, a well known oriental scholar, announced the discovery at theAcademie des Sciences et belles Lettres.