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Cancer prevention is the practice of taking active measures to decrease the incidence ofcancer andmortality.[1][2] The practice of prevention depends on both individual efforts to improve lifestyle and seekpreventive screening, andsocioeconomic orpublic policy related to cancer prevention.[3]Globalized cancer prevention is regarded as a critical objective due to its applicability to large populations, reducing long term effects of cancer by promotingproactive health practices and behaviors, and its perceived cost-effectiveness and viability for allsocioeconomic classes.[2]
The majority of cancer cases are due to the accumulation ofenvironmental pollution being inherited asepigenetic damage and most of these environmental factors are controllable lifestyle choices.[4] Greater than a reported 75% of cancer deaths could be prevented by avoiding risk factors including:tobacco,overweight /obesity, an insufficientdiet,physical inactivity,alcohol,sexually transmitted infections, andair pollution.[5] Not all environmental causes are controllable, such as naturally occurringbackground radiation, and other cases of cancer are caused throughhereditarygenetic disorders. Currentgenetic engineering techniques under development may serve as preventive measures in the future.[6] Future preventive screening measures can be additionally improved by minimizing invasiveness and increasingspecificity by taking individual biological makeup into account, also known as "population-basedpersonalized cancer screening."[2]
no data ≤ 55 55–80 80–105 105–130 130–155 155–180 | 180–205 205–230 230–255 255–280 280–305 ≥ 305 |
While anyone can get cancer,[8] age is one of the biggest factors that increases therisk of cancer: 3 out of 4 cancers are found in people aged 55 or older.
An average 35% of human cancer mortality is attributed to the diet of the individual.[9] Studies have linked excessive consumption of red orprocessed meat to an increased risk ofbreast cancer,colon cancer, andpancreatic cancer, a phenomenon which could be due to the presence ofcarcinogens in meats cooked at high temperatures.[10][11] More specifically, a higher risk of breast cancer also has been shown to possibly be associated with a higher intake of red and processed meats, refined sugars, alcohol and saturated fats.[12] Researchers suggest that this association may be due to the inflammation processes and the increase of estrogen and testosterone from the foods in this diet.[12] In some cases, a high intake of eggs was also found to may be associated with a higher risk of breast cancer due to its high cholesterol contents.[12]
Dietary recommendations for reducing cancer risk typically include an emphasis onvegetables,fruit,whole grains, and fish, and an avoidance of processed and red meat (beef, pork, lamb), animal fats, andrefined carbohydrates.[13][14] The World Cancer Research Fund recommends a diet rich in fruits and vegetables to reduce the risk of cancer. A diet rich in foods of plant origin, including non-starchy fruits and vegetables, non-starchy roots and tubers, and whole grains, may have protective effects against cancer.[15] Consumption ofcoffee is associated with a reduced risk ofliver cancer andendometrial cancer.[16][17] Additionally, a higher coffee intake was shown to be related to a lower risk ofmelanoma and oral/pharyngeal cancer.[17] However, a higher risk of childhoodacute lymphocytic leukemia andbladder cancer actually is associated with higher coffee intake.[17] However, it's important to note that these claims are associations and there is not strong evidence that validates the effects of coffee consumption and cancer risk.[17] Substituting processed foods, such as biscuits, cakes or white bread – which are high in fat, sugars and refined starches – with a plant-based diet may reduce the risk of cancer.[15] In some cases,plant-based diets have shown to be inversely associated with overall cancer risk.[18]
While many dietary recommendations have been proposed to reduce the risk of cancer, the evidence to support them is not definitive.[13][14] The primary dietary factors that increase risk areobesity andalcohol consumption; with a diet low infruits andvegetables and high inred meat being implicated but not confirmed.[19][20] A 2014 meta-analysis did not find a relationship between consuming fruits and vegetables and reduced cancer risk.[21]
Green tea comes fromcamellia sinensis and is made in a process that does not use fermentation.[22] Some studies have found that green tea could possibly have positive effects relating to cancer prevention.[22] Research shows that over half the studies (58%) they examined found that drinking green tea may prevent certain cancers, such as esophageal, stomach, pancreatic, liver and colorectal cancer.[22] But due to the various methodological problems that come with this type of research, the review concludes that the overall analysis of green tea consumption and cancer prevention is inconclusive.[22]
Research shows that regularphysical activity may help to reduce cancer up to 30%,[23][24][25] with up to 300 minutes per week of moderate to vigorous intensity of physical activity recommended.[26][27]
Possible mechanisms by which physical activity may reduce cancer risk include lowering levels ofestrogen andinsulin, reducinginflammation, and strengthening theimmune system.[25][28]
In the general population,NSAIDs reduce the risk ofcolorectal cancer[29]; however, due to the cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects, they cause overall harm when used to lower cancer risk.[30] Aspirin use after a cancer diagnosis is associated with about a 20% reduction in cancer mortality.[31]COX-2 inhibitors may decrease the rate ofpolyp formation in people withfamilial adenomatous polyposis however are associated with the same adverse effects as NSAIDs.[32] Daily use oftamoxifen orraloxifene has been demonstrated to reduce the risk of developingbreast cancer in high-risk women.[33] The benefit verses harm for5-alpha-reductase inhibitor such asfinasteride is not clear.[34]
Vitamins supplements have not been found to be effective at reducing overall cancer risk,[35] although observational studies consistently show that low blood levels ofvitamin D are correlated with increased cancer risk.[36][37] Whether this relationship is causal and vitamin D supplementation is protective is not determined.[38]Beta-carotene supplementation has been found to increaselung cancer rates in those who are at high risk.[39]Folic acid supplementation has not been found effective in preventing colon cancer and may increase colon polyps.[40] A 2018 systematic review concluded thatselenium has no beneficial effect in reducing the risk of cancer based on high quality evidence.[41]
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The United StatesNational Toxicology Program (NTP) has identified thechemical substances listed below as known human carcinogens in the NTP's 15th Report on Carcinogens. Simply because a substance has been designated as a carcinogen, however, does not mean that the substance will necessarily cause cancer. Many factors influence whether a person exposed to a carcinogen will develop cancer, including the amount and duration of the exposure and the individual's genetic background.[42]
Recent Updates in Carcinogen Classification
Updated evaluations by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) continue to confirm the carcinogenicity of long-recognized agents such asasbestos andbenzene, which are included above in theNTP 15th report on carcinogens, while also guiding the assessment of emerging substances in consumer products. A meta-analysis published in 2023 found that exposure to certainendocrine-disrupting chemicals, includingp,p′-DDT (and its metabolitep,p′-DDE) and severalpolychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) variants, was associated with increased risk of breast cancer.[43]
Genetic factors play a significant role in cancer risk, adding to the influence of modifiable environmental factors. Specific gene polymorphisms are associated with increased cancer risk. For instance, variations in thevitamin D receptor (VDR) gene are associated with elevated risks of both breast and ovarian cancers, suggesting that impaired vitamin D signaling may contribute tocarcinogenesis.[44][45] Similarly, inherited variations in theenzymes that contribute to the metabolism of carcinogens have been linked with an increased risk of colorectal cancer, demonstrating how genetic differences can affect the capacity of the body to break down cancer-causing substances.[46] In addition to these inherited factors, environmental exposures can also alter gene regulation throughepigenetic modifications. A systematic review on epigenetics,microbiota, and breast cancer revealed that factors like maternal diet and stress may alter epigenetic markers and impact the development and progression of breast cancer.[47] Research on gene-environment interactions in colorectal cancer identified that lifestyle factors – such as the intake of processed meats, alcohol consumption, and the use of aspirin – affect cancer risk in individuals of specific genetic backgrounds, with aspirin’s protective effects varying according to genetic makeup.[48]
Anti-cancervaccines can be preventive or be used astherapeutic treatment.[2] All such vaccines inciteadaptive immunity by enhancingcytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) recognition and activity againsttumor-associated or tumor-specific antigens (TAA and TSAs).
Vaccines have been developed that preventinfection by somecarcinogenic viruses.[49]Human papillomavirus vaccine (Gardasil andCervarix) decreases the risk of developingcervical cancer.[49] Thehepatitis B vaccine prevents infection with hepatitis B virus and thus decreases the risk of liver cancer.[49] The administration of human papillomavirus and hepatitis B vaccinations is recommended when resources allow.[50]
Some cancer vaccines are usuallyimmunoglobulin-based and targetantigens specific to cancer or abnormal human cells.[2][51] These vaccines may be given to treat cancer during the progression of disease to boost the immune system's ability to recognize and attack cancer antigens as foreign entities. Antibodies for cancer cell vaccines may be taken from the patient's own body (autologous vaccine) or from another patient (allogeneic vaccine).[49] Several autologous vaccines, such asOncophage for kidney cancer and Vitespen for a variety of cancers, have either been released or are undergoingclinical trial.FDA-approved vaccines, such asSipuleucel-T formetastasizingprostate cancer orNivolumab formelanoma and lung cancer can act either by targeting over-expressed ormutatedproteins or by temporarily inhibitingimmune checkpoints to boost immune activity.[2][52]
Screening procedures, commonly sought for more prevalent cancers, such as colon, breast, and cervical, have greatly improved in the past few decades from advances inbiomarker identification and detection.[2] Early detection of pancreatic cancer biomarkers was accomplished using aSERS-basedimmunoassay approach.[53] A SERS-based multiplex protein biomarker detection platform in amicrofluidic chip can be used to detect several protein biomarkers to predict the type of disease and critical biomarkers and increase the chance of diagnosis between diseases with similar biomarkers (e.g.pancreatic cancer,ovarian cancer, andpancreatitis).[54]
To improve the chances of detecting cancer early, all eligible people should take advantage of cancer screening services. However, overall uptake of cancer screening among the general population is not widespread, especially among disadvantaged groups (e.g. those withlow income,mental illnesses, or are from differentethnic groups) who face different barriers that lead to lower attendance rates.[55] Research indicates that these screening barriers are influenced by both individual circumstances and area-level factors. A systematic review of lung cancer screenings found that feelings of fear, anxiety, and negative attitudes toward the screening process can discourage individuals from participating.[56] Additionally, a review examining clinical andpsychosocial aspects associated with breast, cervical, and colorectal cancer screening found that factors like personal beliefs, social support, and effective communication with healthcare providers are associated with screening attendance.[57]
Beyond the personal and psychosocial factors, broader socioeconomic elements also impact screening participation rates. Women with lower income are 20% more likely to not participate in breast cancer screening, with lower education increasing the likelihood of skipping screening by 18%. Immigrant women have nearly triple the odds of non-participation, and individuals living further away from their assigned screening facility, as well as those with a male family doctor, are also less likely to participate in screening.[58] Rural communities often face significant transportation barriers, with long travel distances and limited access to public transportation further reducing access to screening services. In addition, in these rural areas, the uneven distribution of healthcare providers and limited availability oftelehealth services can exacerbate these disparities, reducing access to specialized cancer screening.[59]
The Role of Health Literacy in Cancer Prevention
Health literacy – the ability to navigate and use health care information – is an important factor in cancer prevention. Studies show that individuals with better health literacy are more likely to follow through with cancer screening programs for breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers.[60] Some intervention programs aimed at improving health literacy are shown to not only boost understanding of health information but also address psychosocial aspects, such as patient communication and decision conflict.[61] These interventions include patient decision aids, multimedia educational tools, and clinician communication training, which are linked to improvements in patient knowledge, risk perception, and comfortability with screening processes. Enhancing health literacy by addressing patients' informational and emotional needs may help to reduce disparities in cancer prevention.
Cervical cancer is usually screened throughin vitro examination of the cells of the cervix (e.g.Pap smear),colposcopy, or direct inspection of thecervix (after application of diluteacetic acid), or testing forHPV, theoncogenic virus that is the necessary cause of cervical cancer.[49] Screening is recommended for women over 21 years, initially women between 21 and 29 years old are encouraged to receive Pap smear screens every three years, and those over 29 every five years.[2] For women older than the age of 65 and with no history of cervical cancer or abnormality, and with an appropriate precedence of negative Pap test results may cease regular screening.[62]
Still, adherence to recommended screening plans depends on age and may be linked to "educational level,culture,psychosocial issues, andmarital status," further emphasizing the importance of addressing these challenges in regards to cancer screening.[2]
Colorectal cancer is most often screened with thefecal occult blood test (FOBT). Variants of this test includeguaiac-based FOBT (gFOBT), thefecal immunochemical test (FIT), andstool DNA testing (sDNA).[63] Further testing includesflexible sigmoidoscopy (FS),total colonoscopy (TC), orcomputed tomography (CT) scans if a total colonoscopy is non-ideal. The recommended age at which to begin and continue screening is 50–75 years.[2][64] However, this is highly dependent on medical history and exposure to risk factors for colorectal cancer.[2] Effective screening has been shown to reduce the incidence of colorectal cancer by 33% and colorectal cancer mortality by 43%.[2]
The estimated number of new breast cancer cases in the US in 2018 is predicted to be more than 1.7 million, with more than six hundred thousand deaths.[65] Factors such asbreast size, reduced physical activity,obesity andoverweight status,infertility and never having had children,hormone replacement therapy (HRT), and genetics are risk factors for breast cancer.[2]Mammograms are widely used to screen for breast cancer, and are recommended for women 50–74 years of age by theUS Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF). However, the USPSTF does not recommend mammograms for women 40–49 years old due to the possibility ofoverdiagnosis.[2][66]
Breast cancer is a leading cause of death for women worldwide, being the most common diagnosis for females in regards to cancer.[67] Current research outlines the possible ability for physical activity and diet to help breast cancer prevention.
Researchers have found a link betweenphysical activity and a reduced risk, recurrence and mortality in relation to breast cancer.[67] Physical activity has been shown to plays a crucial role in helping the immune system against cancer.[68] Physical activity and body mass index (BMI) are interrelated because of how an increase of physical activity possibly may decrease BMI, which has also shown to be a breast cancer prevention factor.[67] A recent meta-analysis examined 45,000 breast cancer patients and concluded that women who had higher levels of physical activity showed a possible lower risk for breast cancer recurrence and an overall lower risk of mortality from breast cancer.[69] Additionally,mammary tumor growth or volume was also shown to have possibly reduced due to physical activity.[67] When looking atmetastasis, two studies found that physical activity may have reduced the metastasis of breast cancer that was present in the lungs, femur or abdominal area.[67] In one meta-analysis it was shown that for every 25 hours/week of nonoccupational activity breast cancer risk may be reduced by up to 2%, for every 10 hours/week of exercise breast cancer risk can be possibly be reduced by 3%, and for every 2 hours/week of moderate-to-vigorous recreational activity can possibly reduce breast cancer risk by 5%.[68] In some cases, physical activity has also been shown to lower the level ofsex hormones, which in turn can possibly decrease breast cancer risk among women.[68]
With the rise of new research, it's been suggested that the MedDiet may lower the risk of breast cancer.[68] Some research shows that following this diet could help with breast cancer risk, particularly among women who arepostmenopausal.[70] However, other studies have not found an association between the MedDiet and breast cancer risk.[71] The MedDiet is known to be a healthy diet because it focuses on eating foods that are plant-based and high incarbohydrates andantioxidants, which has been shown to help reduceinflammation.[68] This diet includes foods such as variouswhole grains, nuts, beans,vegetables, fruits,herbs,spices, andolive oil as well as focusing on eating lean sources of meat such asfish andpoultry instead of processed proteins.[68][71]
In some studies, there has been an inverse association between breast cancer risk and whole grain consumption.[68][72] Research suggests certain aspects as to why whole grains can possibly help prevent breast cancer. Various bioactive phytochemicals including phenolic acids,alkylresorcinols,lignans,vitamin E,polysaccharides,carotenoids,phytosterols, andanthocyanins are present in whole grains.[68] These components are said to help prevent breastcarcinogenesis.[68] However, other studies done have shown no association between breast cancer risk andwhole grain intake.[72] Another food group,legumes, has been shown to possible lower breast cancer risk due to its highfiber contents.[68] An example of this food group that would be encouraged to eat islentils,peas,beans andchickpeas.[68] One study found that women who ate >5.5 servings of fruit and vegetables per day had a 11% lower chance of getting breast cancer, compared to those who ate <2.5 servings per day.[68] Researchers suggested this was due to the antioxidants andmicronutrients that have been shown to help reduce breast cancer risk.[68] However, other research shows that there is no association between pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer and eating foods withcarotenoids ornon-starchy vegetables.[71]
As of 2017,tobacco use,diet and nutrition,physical activity, obesity/overweight status,infectious agents, and chemical and physicalcarcinogens have been reported to be the leading areas where cancer prevention can be practiced through enacting positive lifestyle changes, getting appropriate regular screening, and getting vaccinated.[73]
The development of many common cancers are incited by such risk factors. For example, consumption of tobacco and alcohol, a medical history ofgenital warts andSTDs,immunosuppression,unprotected sex, and early age of firstsexual intercourse andpregnancy all may serve as risk factors for cervical cancer. Obesity, red meat orprocessed meat consumption, tobacco andalcohol, and a medical history ofinflammatory bowel diseases are all risk factors for colorectal cancer (CRC). On the other hand, exercise and consumption of vegetables may help decrease the risk of CRC.[2]
Several preventable causes of cancer were highlighted in Doll and Peto's landmark 1981 study,[5] estimating that 75 – 80% of cancers in the United States could be prevented by avoidance of 11 different factors. A more recent review of Doll and Peto's work confirmed that most of these estimates remain relevant today.[74] In addition, a 2013 review of more recent cancer prevention literature by Schottenfeld et al.,[75] summarizing studies reported between 2000 and 2010, points to most of the same avoidable factors identified by Doll and Peto. However, Schottenfeld et al. considered fewer factors (e.g. non inclusion of diet) in their review than Doll and Peto, and indicated that avoidance of these fewer factors would result in prevention of 60% of cancer deaths. The table below indicates the proportions of cancer deaths attributed to different factors, summarizing the observations of Doll and Peto, Shottenfeld et al. and several other authors, and shows the influence of major lifestyle factors on the prevention of cancer, such as tobacco, an unhealthy diet, obesity and infections.
| Factor | Doll & Peto[5][needs update] | Schottenfeld et al.[75] | Other reports |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tobacco | 30% | 30% | 38% men, 23% women,[76] 30%,[77] 25-30% |
| Unhealthy diet | 32% | - | 20%,[78] 10%,[79] 10%-20% |
| Obesity | * | 10% | 14% women, 20% men, among non-smokers,[80] 10-20%, 19-20%United States, 16-18%Great Britain, 13%Brazil, 11-12%China[81] |
| Infection† | 10% | 5-8% | 7-10%,[82] 8% developed nations, 26% developing nations,[77] 10% high income, 25% African |
| Alcohol | 3% | 3-4% | 3.6%,[77] 8% USA, 20% France[83] |
| Occupational exposures | 4% | 3-5% | 2-10%, may be 15-20% in men[84] |
| Radiation (solar and ionizing) | 3% | 3-4% | up to 10% |
| Physical inactivity | * | <5% | 7%[23] |
| Reproductive and sexual behavior | 1-13% | - | - |
| Pollution | 2%[needs update] | - | - |
| Medicines and medical procedures | 1% | - | - |
| Industrial products | <1%[needs update] | - | - |
| Food additives | <1%[needs update] | - | - |
*Included in diet
†Carcinogenic infections include: for theuterine cervix (human papillomavirus [HPV]),liver (hepatitis B virus [HBV] andhepatitis C virus [HCV]), stomach (Helicobacter pylori [H pylori]),lymphoid tissues (Epstein-Barr virus [EBV]),nasopharynx (EBV),urinary bladder (Schistosoma hematobium), andbiliary tract (Opisthorchis viverrini,Clonorchis sinensis)
Cancer has been thought to be a preventable disease since the time ofRoman physician Galen, who observed that an unhealthy diet was correlated with cancer incidence. In 1713,Italian physician Ramazzini hypothesized thatabstinence caused lower rates of cervical cancer in nuns. Further observation in the 18th century led to the discovery that certain chemicals, such as tobacco, soot and tar (leading toscrotal cancer inchimney sweeps, as reported byPercivall Pott in 1775), could serve as carcinogens for humans. Although Pott suggested preventive measures for chimney sweeps (wearing clothes to prevent contact bodily contact with soot), his suggestions were only put into practice inHolland, resulting in decreasing rates of scrotal cancer in chimney sweeps. Later, the 19th century brought on the onset of the classification of chemical carcinogens.[85]
In the early 20th century, physical and biological carcinogens, such asX-ray radiation or theRous Sarcoma Virus discovered 1911, were identified. Despite observed correlation of environmental or chemical factors with cancer development, there was a deficit of formal prevention research and lifestyle changes for cancer prevention were not feasible during this time.[85]
In Europe, in 1987 theEuropean Commission launched theEuropean Code Against Cancer to help educate the public about actions they can take to reduce their risk of getting cancer.[86] The first version of the code covered 10 recommendations covering tobacco, alcohol, diet, weight, sun exposure, exposure to known carcinogens, early detection and participation in organized breast and cervical cancer screening programs.[87] In the early 1990s, theEuropean School of Oncology led a review of the code and added details about the scientific evidence behind each of the recommendations.[87] Later updates were coordinated by theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer. The fourth edition of the code,[1], developed in 2012‒2013, also includes recommendations on participation invaccination programs for hepatitis B (infants) and human papillomavirus (girls),breast feeding andhormone replacement therapy, and participation in organized colorectal cancer screening programs.
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