TheCanadian Militia is a historical title for military units raised for the defence of Canada. The term has been used to describe sedentarymilitia units raised from local communities in Canada; as well as theregular army for theProvince of Canada and post-confederated Canada, referred to as the active militias.
The earliest militia units in Canada dates back to 16th century inNew France. In the French colony, a compulsory militia of settlers from every parish was raised in order to support themilitary of New France in the defence and expansion of the colony. Sedentary militia units were also raised by the British, to defend its colonies and to support British military operations on the continent. The sedentary militia eventually fell into disuse in the late-19th century, although vestiges of the sedentary militia system continued into the early-20th century.
The Canadian Militia also referred to the regular army established by the Province of Canada under theMilitia Act of 1855. The two organizations that originated from the act, thePermanent Active Militia (PAM), and theNon-Permanent Active Militia (NPAM), continued to serve as Canada's regular army following Canadian Confederation in 1867. In November 1940, both PAM and NPAM were reorganized as theCanadian Army, with PAM becoming the Army'sRegular Force, and NPAM becoming theArmy Reserve. The Army Reserve continues to be informally referred to as themilitia in Canada.
Enrolment in a local sedentary unit was required in the French colony ofNew France, and the various colonies ofBritish North America; with these sedentary militia units occasionally conducting drills and training exercises, as well as participating in an annual reviews.[1][2][3]
Prior toCanadian Confederation, theProvince of Canada, and the colonies ofAtlantic Canada maintained their own militias.[1] Enrolment in the sedentary militias continued for several years after Canadian Confederation, although the practice was ended shortly afterwards, superseded by the active militias. The colonies ofBritish Columbia andVancouver Island did not require its residents to enrol with a sedentary militia unit, although locally raised "volunteer corps" were established.[4]
Use of militias in Canada date back to New France. As the militias in New France were formally maintained by theintendant of New France, the system became a basis for centralized administration in the colony.[5] Local militia captains were appointed by the intendant, and typically assisted the civil administration with road-building, and periodic censuses.[5]
In 1669, KingLouis XIV, concerned about the colony's inability to defend itself adequately against raids, ordered the creation of a compulsory militia that would include every fit male between 16 and 60 years of age. They were organized into companies, usually one per church parish, and structured in the same way as a regular French infantry company. The Governor General,Louis de Buade de Frontenac, arranged during the 1690s to provide all militiamen with clothing and equipment. This consisted generally of acapote, abreechcloth, leggings, a blanket, moccasins, a knife and two shirts, The clothing did not constitute a military uniform but was simply Canadian-style civilian wear. Since these men were not paid, this was a relatively economical way of maintaining an effective militia. The men were noted as excellent shots (most came with their own rifle, powder and bullets), and in better physical condition than regulars, because of their tough life, farming, fishing and hunting. Volunteer militiamen were used to support the regulars and theirFirst Nation allies on lengthy raids, where they absorbed the skirmishing tactics of the latter. However, little time was spent on conventional European drill.[6]
Following the Britishconquest of New France, local militia units continued to be raised, and support British soldiers stationed inBritish America/British North America. Members of the militia of theProvince of Quebec first saw service with the British duringPontiac's War, when a battalion of three hundredCanadien volunteers took part in Brigadier-GeneralJohn Bradstreet's expedition to Detroit.[7] The battalion was led by former members of the New Frenchtroupes de la marine.[7] British authorities also mustered the militia in Quebec during theAmerican Revolutionary War, whose members constituted most of the defenders at theBattle of Quebec.[8] However,Canadien militias saw little expeditionary action during the American Revolution, withFrederick Haldimand, theGovernor of Quebec, uncertain if theCanadien militias would remain loyal should they encounter theFrench Royal Army.[9]
While British North American colonies were expected to maintain a colonial militia, the militias were financed by the British government.[10] Given the British government's preoccupation with Napoleonic France in the early 19th century, militias inthe Canadas saw a shortage of supplies and weapons with limited funds provided for the militias during that period.[10] Compulsory militia service for male inhabitants aged 16 to 60 was introduced in Lower Canada in 1803 and Upper Canada in 1808. In peacetime, compulsory service was typically limited to a single annual muster.[11][12] In 1811, the militia strength ofUpper Canada was approximately 11,000, althoughIsaac Brock, theLieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, estimated that only 4,000 could be reliably expected to answer roll call.[13] Early in his tenure as Lieutenant Governor, Brock passed legislation that allowed for him to train 2,000 volunteers, or men chosen by ballot, to serve as the flank companies for the Upper Canadian militia.[13] During theWar of 1812, British authorities raised a number ofCanadian military and militia units to support the British in defending the Canadas.
In 1840, the sedentary militias of the Canadas were made up of 426 battalions, with 235,000 men registered on militia rolls.[14] Sedentary militia were also present inMaritime colonies, with 40,997 reported in Nova Scotia's militia, while the New Brunswick militia reported 27,532 members in 1845.[14]Prince Edward Island fielded a militia of approximately 8,000 men in 1845.[14] During theTrent Affair in 1861, Nova Scotia revived compulsory militia service, enrolling 59,379 men in the Nova Scotia militia, of which 45,600 were armed.[15] TheMilitia Act of 1868 extended the sedentary militia system of the former Province of Canada to the newly formed Canadiandominion.[16] In 1869, theMinister of Militia and Defence,George-Étienne Cartier, reported that 618,896 men were enrolled with the sedentary militia or "Reserve Militia".[16]
The sedentary militia system fell into disuse during the 1870s and 1880s, as annual musters became increasingly sporadic. By 1883, the formal requirement to hold an annual muster was stricken from legislation, and in 1904, the provision that formally made every male inhabitant of military age a member of the sedentary Reserve Militia was removed.[11] Although the Reserve Militia was an unorganized service and virtually non-existent by the early-20th century, an officers' roll for the sedentary service was maintained as late as 1921.[12]
As the British withdrew soldiers fromBritish North America in the decades following the War of 1812, pressure fell on theParliament of the Province of Canada to provide for its own defence. TheMilitia Act of 1855 was passed after a commission on militia reform suggested the sedentary force be supplanted with uniformed volunteer regiments.[17] The resulting act led to the creation of the Active Militia, in an effort to bolster the colony's defences.[18]
The Active Militia was later split into the Permanent Active Militia (PAM), the forces'standing army; and the Non-Permanent Active Militia (NPAM), a force that acted as amilitary reserve force.[19] Members of the Active Militia were mobilized during theFenian raids of 1866.
Following Canadian Confederation in July 1867, both PAM, and NPAM were managed by the CanadianMinister of Militia. TheMilitia Act of 1868 formally extended the Active Militias system of the former Province of Canada to the newly formed Canadian dominion.[16] In 1869,George-Étienne Cartier reported that 37,170 volunteers were enrolled with the Active Militias.[16] However, funding remained an issue for the militia in the 1870s, and 1880s, with British officers urging the Canadian government to either increase the militia's funding, or reduce militia enrolments until its units can be sufficiently trained and equipped.[20]
The Active Militias were mobilized on a number of occasions in the latter half of the 19th century, including theFenian raids of 1870–71, theWolseley expedition, theNorth-West Rebellion, and theSecond Boer War. The Second Boer War saw more than 8,000 volunteers raised for service in South Africa, from 82 different militia units.[21]
From 1875 to 1904, the officer heading the Canadian Militia was theGeneral Officer Commanding the Canadian Militia (GOC), a position legally required to be held by an officer of theBritish Army. However, serious differences in opinion over divisions of responsibilities between the civil and military branches of the Militia Department would see the post virtually abolished under theMilitia Act of 1904.[22] The office of the GOC was replaced by the Militia Council. The six member council included the Minister of Militia serving as the council's president, another civilian member, typically the Deputy Minister of Militia, and four members drawn from the Canadian military, the Chief of General Staff, the Adjutant General, the Quartermaster General, and the Master General of the Ordnance.[22] Although modelled after the BritishArmy Council, the Militia Council was purely an advisory body, with the Minister holding supreme authority over it; and the Chief of General Staff becoming the premier military member of the council.[23]
The militia also saw several administrative reforms instituted in the early 1900s, with the establishment of theCanadian Army Service Corps in 1901; theCanadian Military Engineers, theOrdnance Stores Corps, and theSignalling Corps in 1903; and thePermanent Active Militia Medical Corps in 1904.[22]
DuringWorld War I, the militia was not mobilized, with Canadians serving overseas enlisting with theCanadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), a separate military field force managed by theMinistry of Overseas Military Forces.[24] As World War I drew to a close and the CEF expected to disband, theOtter Commission was launched in an effort to reorganize the Canadian militia. The Commission proposed that PAM field a force of six infantry divisions, one cavalry division, supplemented by personnel from NPAM.[25] Additionally, the Otter Commission saw links of perpetuation created between CEF and Canadian Militia units; permitting militia units to perpetuate thebattle honours earned by CEF units disbanded after the First World War.[26]
Improvements to both PAM's and NPAM's officer corps were undertaken in the 1930s, with PAM officers directing officer cadets through courses such as the "Advanced Militia Staff Course," beginning in 1935.[27] As a result, the Militia fielded a much larger officer corps in 1939, when compared to 1914; with the Canadian Militia fielded approximately 5,000 officers spread throughout PAM and NPAM.[27] However, training within the Canadian Militia remained an issue, with little regimental or larger formation training taking place during the interwar period.[27]
In 1938,Ian Alistair Mackenzie, theMinister of National Defence, began to encourageGeneralHarry Crerar, Chief of Defence Staff, to plan contingencies for the militia to prepare forexpeditionary action, in the event of a war between Germany and the British Empire, without the consent ofWilliam Lyon Mackenzie King, thePrime Minister of Canada.[28] Crerar sought to reorganize the Canadian Militia to new standards adopted by the British, mechanize the militia, and prepare PAM, and NPAM for combat in a temperate climate, which was the expected climate they would be operating in.[28] However the General Staff's proposal to prepare a 60,000 man force to assist the British in the event of a war was not presented until 29 August 1939, days before the start of the war.[28]
On the eve of World War II, the Canadian Militia's nominal strength was over 50,000 men, with PAM fielding 455 officers, and 3,714 soldiers of all other ranks; whereas NPAM fielded 5,272 officers, and 41,249 soldiers of all other ranks.[28] However, the Canadian Militia was not prepared to undertake an overseas campaign at the outbreak of World War II.ColonelCharles Perry Stacey, a military historian for theCanadian Army from 1940 to 1959, on the readiness of the Canadian Militia at the eve of the Second World War,
The tiny Permanent Force did not constitute a striking force capable either of counter attack against a major raid or of expeditionary action. The Non-Permanent Active Militia, with its limited strength, obsolescent equipment, and rudimentary training, was incapable of immediate effective action of any sort against a formidable enemy. The two forces together constituted a useful and indeed essential foundation upon which, over a period of months, an army could be built. They offered, however, no means for rapid intervention in an overseas theatre of operations.
— ColonelCharles Perry Stacey[28]
Following the suggestion of General Harry Crerar, on 19 November 1940, the military land forces of Canada were renamed as the Canadian Army through anOrder in Council.[29] PAM was reorganized as Canadian Army (Active), whereas NPAM became Canadian Army (Reserve).[30]
The two Canadian Army components that were previously PAM and NPAM were renamed followingWorld War II as Canadian ArmyRegular Force andCanadian Army Reserve Force respectively. However, in 1954, the Reserve Force was once again renamed Canadian Army (Militia) as a result of theKennedy Report on the Reserve Army.[31] Following theunification of the Canadian Armed Forces in 1968, the Canadian Army became Mobile Command, with its reserve component becoming Mobile Command (Reserve), while the military districts were renamed from Militia Groups to become Militia Districts, a designation retained until 1991.[32]
In 1993, Mobile Command (Reserve) was renamed Land Force Command (Reserve), changing its name to match its Regular Force counterparts (also renamed Land Force Command). In 2011, the service elements of the Canadian Armed Forces reverted to their pre-1968 names, with Land Force Command (Reserve) reverting its name to the Canadian Army Reserve.
The term militia is still usedcolloquially in Canada in reference to the Canadian Army Reserve.[33][34]
Evolution of the Military of Canada | |
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| Military formation inBritish North America |
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| Military formation inNew France | |
