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Canaanite religion orSyro-Canaanite religions refers to the myths, cults and ritual practices of people in theLevant during roughly the first three millennia BC.[1] Canaanite religions werepolytheistic and in some casesmonolatristic. They were influenced by neighboring cultures, particularly ancientEgyptian andMesopotamian religious practices. Thepantheon was headed by the godEl and his consortAsherah, with other significant deities includingBaal,Anat,Astarte, andDagon.
Canaanite religious practices includedanimal sacrifice,veneration of the dead, and the worship of deities throughshrines andsacred groves. Thereligion also featured a complexmythology, including stories of divine battles and cycles of death and rebirth. Archaeological evidence, particularly from sites likeUgarit, and literary sources, including theUgaritic texts and theHebrew Bible, have provided most of the current knowledge about Canaanite religion.
Knowledge about the Canaanite religions is fragmentary and insufficient to construct a complete and continuous account. Prior to the emergence ofLevantine archaeology in the late 19th and early 20th century, the knowledge of Canaanite religion came mostly from the accounts of theHebrew Bible. This was supplemented by some secondary and tertiary Greek sources (Lucian'sOn the Syrian Goddess, fragments of thePhoenician History of Philo of Byblos, and the writings ofDamascius). Present-day knowledge of Canaanite religion comes primarily from archaeological discoveries of literary sources and material remains linked to Canaanite religion.[2][3]
The literary sources appear in the form of ancient texts, uncovered in archaeological excavations. The earliest evidence of Canaanite religions come from theEbla tablets, a series of texts inscribed on clay, found atTell Mardikh, Syria and dated to the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. They include lists of offerings to primary deities of the Canaanite pantheon (El,Baal andDagon). In the late 3rd millennium to early 2nd millennium BC, the same Canaanite deities appear in personaltheophoric name ofAmorite people, whose homeland was located in the middleEuphrates and lowerKhabur regions of northwest Syria. Additional light is shed by inscriptions ofIdrimi, the 15th century BC king ofAlalakh and the 14th–13th century BC tablets ofEmar. By far the most substantial source of information is areUgaritic texts, found nearRas Shamra, Syria (ancient Ugarit), dated around 1275 BC. Over three hundred of these texts attest to key Canaanite myths and legends, as well asincantations, prayers,hymns,votive texts, deity lists, festival catalogs, lists of sacrifices, ritual prescriptions or descriptions,liturgies, andomen texts.[4]
During the first millennium BC, several distinct branches of Canaanite religion persisted. While the Hebrew Bible distinguishesYahwism, practiced in the kingdoms ofIsrael andJudah, from Canaanite religion, scholars suggested it was in fact one of the Canaanite religions.[1] Limited sources for religion in other parts of theSouthern Levant, such asMesha Stele (c. 850 BC) from the land ofMoab and theDeir Alla inscription (c. 700 BC) with its unique dialect. In the broader region of Syria,Aramean religion is attested by sources such as theTell Fekherya bilingual inscription (9th century BC),Stele of Zakkur (c. 775 BC),Sefire steles (beforec. 740 BC) and theHadad Statue (mid 8th century BC).Phoenician religion is attested by texts discovered in and around modernLebanon, such as theYehimilk inscription (10th century), theKaratepe bilingual (c. 720 BC) and theYehawmilk Stele (5th–4th century BC).[5]
Throughout theHellenistic period, in the non-Jewish parts of Canaan,Greek religion spread alongside pre-existing Canaanite traditions rather than replacing them. There were plenty of similarities between both religions, and through a process ofsyncretism, Canaanite deities were given the names of the Greek equivalents.[6]
As the Phoenicians colonized the westernMediterranean (Punic people), there are also many texts attesting toPunic religion, such as theCarthage Tariff andMarseille Tariff (c. 200 BC).[5] While the Punic religion was a direct continuation of the Phoenician branch, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation ofCarthage and other Punic communities elsewhere inNorth Africa, southernSpain,Sardinia, westernSicily, andMalta from the 9th century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by theRoman Republic in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the 4th century AD in some cases.[citation needed]
Canaanites believed that following physical death, thenpš (usually translated as "soul") departed from the body to the land ofMot (Death). Bodies were buried withgrave goods, and offerings of food and drink were made to the dead to ensure that they would not trouble the living. Dead relatives were venerated and were sometimes asked for help.[7][8]
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None of theinscribed tablets found since 1928 in the Canaanite city ofUgarit (destroyedc. 1200 BC) has revealed acosmology. Syntheses are nearly impossible withoutHierombalus andPhilo of Byblos (c. 64–141 AD) viaEusebius, before and after much Greek and Roman influence in the region.
According to the pantheon, known in Ugarit as'ilhm (elohim) or the children ofEl, supposedly obtained by Philo of Byblos fromSanchuniathon of Berythus (Beirut) the creator was known as Elion, who was the father of the divinities, and in the Greek sources he was married to Beruth (Beirut meaning 'the city'). This marriage of the divinity with the city would seem to have Biblical parallels too with the stories of the link betweenMelqart andTyre;Chemosh andMoab;Tanit andBaal Hammon inCarthage,Yah andJerusalem.
The union of El Elyon and his consort Asherah would be analogous to the TitansCronus andRhea in Greek mythology or the RomanSaturnus andOps.
In Canaanitemythology there were twin mountains as a recurring motif.W. F. Albright, for example, says thatEl Shaddai is a derivation of a Semitic stem that appears in the Akkadianshadû ('mountain') andshaddā'û orshaddû'a ('mountain-dweller'), one of the names of Amurru. Philo of Byblos states thatAtlas was one of the elohim, which would clearly fit into the story of El Shaddai as "God of the Mountain(s)". Harriet Lutzky has presented evidence that Shaddai was an attribute of a Semitic goddess, linking the epithet with Hebrewšad, 'breast', as "the one of the breast". The idea of two mountains being associated here as the breasts of the Earth, fits into the Canaanite mythology quite well. The ideas of pairs of mountains seem to be quite common in Canaanite mythology. The late period of this cosmology makes it difficult to tell what influences (Roman, Greek, or Hebrew) may have informed Philo's writings.
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In theBaal Cycle, Ba'al Hadad is challenged by and defeats Yam using two magical weapons (called "Driver" and "Chaser") made for him byKothar-wa-Khasis. Afterward, with the help of Athirat and Anat, Ba'al persuades El to allow him a palace. El approves, and the palace is built by Kothar-wa-Khasis. After the palace is constructed, Ba'al gives forth a thunderous roar out of the palace window and challenges Mot. Mot enters through the window and swallows Ba'al, sending him to the underworld. With no one to give rain, there is a terrible drought in Ba'al's absence. The other deities, especially El and Anat, are distraught that Ba'al had been taken to the underworld. Anat goes to the underworld, attacks Mot with a knife, grinds him up into pieces, and scatters him far and wide. With Mot defeated, Ba'al is able to return and refresh the Earth with rain.[9]
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| Deities |
A group ofdeities in a four-tier hierarchy headed byEl andAsherah[a][b] were worshipped by the followers of the Canaanite religion; this is a detailed listing:[12]
Archaeological investigations at the site ofTell es-Safi have found the remains of donkeys, as well as some sheep and goats in Early Bronze Age layers, dating to 4,900 years ago which were imported from Egypt in order to be sacrificed. One of the sacrificial animals, a complete donkey, was found beneath the foundations of a building, leading to speculation this was a 'foundation deposit' placed before the building of a residential house.[35]
It is considered virtually impossible to reconstruct a clear picture of Canaanite religious practices, but child sacrifice by the Canaanites was known to surrounding peoples. According to K.L. Noll, under the duress of military crisis, human sacrifice was offered to the divine patron of a besieged city, as well as the sacrifice of prisoners of war to the victorious god.[36] Ronald Hendel believes the Israelites disparaged the Canaanite religion because they wanted to disassociate themselves from their Canaanite ancestors and form a new national identity.[37]
Canaanite religious practice had a high regard for the duty of children to care for their parents, with sons being held responsible for burying them, and arranging for the maintenance of their tombs.[38]
Canaanite deities such as Baal were represented by figures which were placed in shrines, often on hilltops, or 'high places' surrounded by groves of trees, such as is condemned in the Hebrew Bible, in Hosea (v 13a) which would probably hold the Asherah pole, and standing stones or pillars.[39]
Funerary rites held an important role in Canaanite religion and included rituals to honor the deceased and to feed the "npš" (the origin of the Hebrew word״נפש״ and usually translated as soul) as it moved on to Mot, the land of death. Rituals to honor the deceased included offerings ofincense,libations,music, the singing of devotional songs, and sometimes trance rituals, oracles, and necromancy.
Excavations inTel Megiddo have offered greater insight into Canaanite funerary practices. A large number of wine vessels have been found in the graves there, as well as vessels of beeswax, animal fat, olive oil, resin, and even vanilla. Thesegrave goods may have been used as part of a funerary feast, as offerings to the dead, or both. Additionally, evidence ofopium use was found at "a Late Bronze Age site in the southern Levant". The presence of grave goods may suggest similarities between Canaanite practices and theAncient Egyptian custom of providing the deceased with supplies for the afterlife.[40]
Canaanite religion was strongly influenced by their more powerful and populous neighbors, and shows clear influence ofMesopotamian andEgyptian religious practices. Like other people of the Ancient Near East Canaanite religious beliefs werepolytheistic, with families typically focusing on veneration of the dead in the form of household gods and goddesses, the Elohim, while acknowledging the existence of other deities such as Baal and El, Mot, Qos, Asherah and Astarte. Kings also played an important religious role and in certain ceremonies, such as thehieros gamos of theNew Year, may have been revered as gods. "At the center of Canaanite religion was royal concern for religious and political legitimacy and the imposition of a divinely ordained legal structure, as well as peasant emphasis on fertility of the crops, flocks, and humans."[41][42]
Robert G. Boling argues that there was no "local pantheon" in Canaan. Instead, the Canaanites selectively worshipped the "most important and interesting deities" from their neighbors, gave them multiple names and omitted their geographic origins. Like language, their gods also varied over time. Boling finds this unsurprising because Canaan was a land bridge between Asia and Africa, where cross-cultural exchange was frequent.[43]
Canaanite religion was influenced by its peripheral position, intermediary between Egypt and Mesopotamia, whose religions had a growing impact upon Canaanite religion. For example, during theHyksos period, when chariot-mountedmaryannu ruled in Egypt, at their capital city ofAvaris, Baal became associated with the Egyptian godSet, (Sutekh or Seth) and was considered identical. Iconographically henceforth, Baal was shown wearing the crown ofLower Egypt and shown in the Egyptian-like stance, one foot set before the other. SimilarlyAthirat (known by her later Hebrew name Asherah),Athtart (known by her later Greek name Astarte), andAnat henceforth were portrayed wearingHathor-like Egyptian wigs.
From the other direction,Jean Bottéro and Giovanni Pettinato[44] have argued thatYa ofEbla and the more familiarYah (orYahweh) were related to theMesopotamian godEa during theAkkadian Empire. In the Middle and Late Bronze Age, there are also strongHurrian andMitannite influences upon the Canaanite religion. The Hurrian goddessHebat was worshiped inJerusalem, andBaal was closely considered equivalent to the Hurrian storm godTeshub and theHittite storm god,Tarhunt. Canaanite divinities seem to have been almost identical in form and function to the neighboringArameans to the east, and Baal Hadad and El can be distinguished amongst earlierAmorites, who at the end of the EarlyBronze Age invadedMesopotamia.
Carried west byPhoenician sailors, Canaanite religious influences can be seen inGreek mythology, particularly in the tripartite division between theOlympiansZeus,Poseidon andHades, mirroring the division betweenBaal,Yam andMot, and in the story of theLabours of Hercules, mirroring the stories of theTyrianMelqart, who was often equated with Heracles.[45]
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