Mun orMunism (also calledBongthingism) is the traditionalpolytheistic,animist,shamanistic andsyncretic religion of theLepcha people. It predates the 7th century Lepcha conversion toLamaistic Buddhism, and since that time, the Lepcha have practiced ittogether with Buddhism. Since the arrival ofChristian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that religion as well. The traditional religion permits incorporation ofBuddha andJesus Christ as deities, depending on household beliefs.[1][2][3][4][5][6]
Theexonym "Mun" derives from the traditional belief in spirits calledmun ormung. Together withbongthing (alsobungthing orbóngthíng),mun comprise a central element in the religion. These terms are also used to describe the shaman priesthood that officiates the respective spirits.[1][2][7]
The Mun religion and its priesthood are in decline.[8] Conversion to other religions is attributed to economic pressure, as traditional practices are immensely expensive to the ordinary practitioner.[1] It has, however, regained interest among Lepcha as ecological encroachment becomes a growing concern.[2] The environment is so deeply intertwined with Mun beliefs that religious leaders have offered direct opposition to development in areas including theRathong Chu andTeesta Rivers.[9]
The traditional Lepcha belief system is rich in oralmyths,legends,fables, andfairy-tales collectively calledlúngten sung.[10]
According to Mun mythology, the ancestors of the Lepcha were created by Itbu Rum, who molded them from the pure snows of mountKangchenjunga. They thus share a lineage with the natural environment and share the cosmos with non-human spirits.[2]
The spirit of the legendaryThekong Thek delivers reproaches to the Lepcha chief throughmun orbongthing shamans.[7]
The belief system of Mun is animist, and the natural environment provides much of its basis. Naturally occurring spirits are an object of ceremonial dedication, and they reside in objects such as trees, rocks, and rivers. It is also asyncretic religion that has coexisted withMahayana Buddhism since its arrival in the seventh century, with practitioners following both religions at the same time. Traditional beliefs may have influenced Lepcha Buddhist scriptures.[2][3][10] Modern religious life in a Lepcha village is centered on thegumpa, orBuddhist monastery.[1]
Many Lepcha were converted toChristianity byScottish missionaries in the 19th century, however Buddhism and the traditional religion have retained important roles in Lepcha religious life. Many Christian Lepcha who have lost theirLepcha language have also distanced themselves from these traditional aspects of Lepcha religion.[1][10]
Mun religion includes a belief in heaven, calledrumlyang orrum lyaang (fromrum "god" andlyaang "land/place").[11]
The Mun religion ispolytheistic andsyncretic: it acknowledges several deities, including those of other religions, namelyBuddhism andChristianity.[12]
The chief goddess of the Lepcha religion is Nozyongnyu.[1] The mother-creator is a female earth deity, It Bumoo (also Itbu-moo).[3][13] Two other female deities are the chief of themun spirits.[1]
Traditional Lepcha beliefs include deities governing family, clan (or lineage,putsho), village, region, and wider levels. Clan deities may be named after mountain peaks or rivers, while regions are home to deities associated with Kangchenjunga such asChyu-rum-fat. The current traditional religion also incorporatesBuddha andJesus Christ as a deities, depending on household beliefs.[1][2]
Mun spirits are of two general types: the benevolent, orwhite magician,taung-li mun, and the malevolent orblack magician, calledmung-sek mun ormung.[13] The latter reside in trees, bushes, rocks, and rivers.[1] The spirits are further subdivided into seven classes:avor mun,pildon mun,angan mun,tungli mun,munjyum mun,mun mook mun andlyang-eet mun.Mun spirits, and witchcraft, are believed to be the invariable culprit of illness.[2]
Ceremonies are usually performed for one or several households, and consist of two parts. Therum portion is an offering to devils. The second,tsandong, is for offerings to the deity Kangchenjunga, toChyu rum fat, and to the plains. Ceremonies generally seek to appease these spirits.[1]Bongthing rituals generally include prayers, herbs, and amulets, and may also include directed breathing or spitting by the priest. Ritual prayers are sometimes in the form ofglossolalia.[2][13]
Spirit possession is considered to occur in various ways: from a subtle headache to violent, uncontrollable madness. Generally symptoms are the manifestation ofmung spirits feeding off the flesh, blood, internal organs, or life energy of the host.[2] Ritual paraphernalia include theghanta bell,damaru dru necklaces, and consecrated cup filled withchi.[2]
The religion practicesanimal sacrifice, especially of goats and pigs.[1][3][8]
Mun priests are traditionally present at Lepcha celebrations for birth, marriage, and death. Among the Lepcha, Mun officiants are the only obligatory aspect of a commoner's funeral. The funerary ceremony, calleddek flee, is accompanied by the sacrifice of a goat and a hen three days after death. It is also performed at the home of people who die elsewhere, for fear of the spirit's return.[1][14] Auspicious locations and days, particularly in rural settings, may be required of rituals to address more severe ailments or threatening afflictions.[2]
Festivals are also a central aspect of the religion.[10]
The priesthood consists of two types of shaman, corresponding to the spirits they manifest.Mun enter trance, believed to involve spirit possession, manifesting supernatural entities bodily. Spirits can be male or female. Thebongthing are only male, where they have to learn and practice rituals. It is said that Bongthing came before Mun, so as to show respect, the Mun needs to learn both the Bongthing way and the Mun way. Their main functions are to ward off misfortunes and illness, performexorcisms, and guide souls to theafterlife. Some also adjudicatetheft cases. Although the priesthood exists, the religion considers true knowledge to be a divinerevelation throughmeditation or dreams, as opposed to a learned talent.[1][2][4][10]
Both themun andbongthing priesthoods are hereditary. Trained disciples of existing masters are often recruited to service at times of crisis as an election by ancestors or shamanic gods.[1][2] It is possible for abongthing to advance tomun status.[10]
Padem are a male hereditary junior priesthood. Apadem is usually an initiate on the path to becoming amun shaman, and has the right to offer sacrifice.[15]
The traditional priesthood also plays a role in the indigenous medical system, as they learn traditional medicine and healing rituals.[2]
