InMuslim tradition theQuran is the final revelation from God,Islam's divine text, believed to be delivered to theIslamic prophetMuhammad through the angelJibril (Gabriel). Muhammad's revelations were said to have been recorded orally and in writing, through Muhammad and his followers up until his death in 632 CE.[1] These revelations were then compiled by first caliphAbu Bakr and codified during the reign of the third caliphUthman[2] (r. 644–656 CE) so that the standardcodex edition of the Quran orMuṣḥaf was completed around 650 CE, according to Muslim scholars.[3] This has been critiqued by some western scholarship, suggesting the Quran wascanonized at a later date, based on the dating of classical Islamic narratives, i.e.hadiths, which were written 150–200 years after the death of Muhammad,[4] and partly because of the textual variations present in theSana'a manuscript. Muslim scholars who oppose the views of theWestern revisionist theories regarding the historical origins of the Quran have described their theses as "untenable".[5]
More than 60 fragments including more than 2000 folios (4000 pages) are so far known as the textual witnesses (manuscripts) of the Qur'an before 800 CE (within 168 years after the death of Muhammad), according toCorpus Coranicum.[6] However, in 2015, experts from theUniversity of Birmingham discovered theBirmingham Quran manuscript, which is possibly the oldest manuscript of the Quran in the world.Radiocarbon analysis to determine the age of the manuscript revealed that this manuscript could be traced back to some time between 568 and 645 AD.[7][8][9] Selected manuscripts from the first four centuries after the death of Muhammad (632–1032 CE) are listed below.
Hijazi manuscripts are some of the earliest forms of Quranic texts, and can be characterized by Hijazi script.[1] Hijazi script is distinguished by its "informal, sloping Arabic script."[10] The most widely used Qurans were written in the Hijazi style script, a style that originates before Kufic style script. This is portrayed by the rightward inclining of the tall shafts of the letters, and the vertical extension of the letters.[11]
The so-calledCodex Parisino-petropolitanus formerly conserved portions of two of the oldest extant Quranic manuscripts. Most surviving leaves represent a Quran that is preserved in various fragments, the largest part of which are kept in theBibliothèque nationale de France, as BNF Arabe 328(ab). Forty-six leaves are held at theNational Library of Russia and one each in theVatican Library (Vat. Ar. 1605/1) and in theKhalili Collection of Islamic Art.
BnF Arabe 328(c), formerly bound withBnF Arabe 328(ab), has 16 leaves,[12] with two additional leaves discovered in Birmingham in 2015 (Mingana 1572a, bound with an unrelated Quranic manuscript).[13][14]
BnF Arabe 328(c) was part of a lot of pages from the store of Quranic manuscripts at theMosque of Amr ibn al-As inFustat bought by French OrientalistJean-Louis Asselin de Cherville (1772–1822) when he served as vice-consul in Cairo during 1806–1816.
The 16 folia in Paris contain the text ofchapter 10:35 to11:95 and of20:99 to23:11.
TheBirmingham folia covers part of the lacuna (gap) in the Paris portion, with parts of the text of suras18,19 and 20.
The Birmingham Quran manuscriptparchment of two leaves (cataloged as Mingana 1572a) has beenradiocarbon dated to between 568 and 645 CE (95.4%credible interval), indicating the animal from which the parchment was made lived during that time.[7][8]
The parts ofSurahs 18-20 its leaves preserve[15] are written in ink on parchment, using anArabicHijazi script and are still clearly legible.[8] The leaves are folio size (343 mm by 258 mm; 13½" x 10¼" at the widest point),[16] and are written on both sides in a generously scaled and legible script.[8] The text is laid out in the format that was to become standard for complete Quran texts, with chapter divisions indicated by linear decoration, and verse endings by intertextual clustered dots.
The two leaves are held by theUniversity of Birmingham,[17] in theCadbury Research Library,[7] but have been recognized[7][18][14] as corresponding to alacuna in the 16 leaves catalogued as BnF Arabe 328(c)[19][20] in theBibliothèque Nationale de France in Paris, now bound with theCodex Parisino-petropolitanus.
Marijn van Putten, who has published work on idiosyncratic orthography common to all early manuscripts of the Uthmanic text type[21] has stated and demonstrated with examples that due to a number of these same idiosyncratic spellings present in the Birmingham fragment (Mingana 1572a + Arabe 328c), it is "clearly a descendant of the Uthmanic text type" and that it is "impossible" that it is a pre-Uthmanic copy, despite its early radiocarbon dating.[22]
In November 2014, theUniversity of Tübingen in Germany announced that a partial Quran manuscript in their possession (Ms M a VI 165), had been carbon dated (95.4% credible interval), to between 649 and 675.[23][24][25] The manuscript is now recognised as being written in hijazi script,[citation needed] although in the 1930 catalogue of the collection it is classified as "Kufic", and consists of the Quranic verses 17:36, to 36:57 (and part of verse 17:35).[26]
TheSana'a manuscript, is one of the oldest Quranic manuscripts in existence. It contains only three chapters. It was found, along with many other Quranic and non-Quranic fragments, inYemen in 1972 during restoration of theGreat Mosque of Sana'a. The manuscript is written onparchment, and comprises two layers of text (seepalimpsest). The upper text conforms to the standard'Uthmanic Quran, whereas the lower text contains many variants to the standard text. An edition of the lower text was published in 2012.[27] Aradiocarbon analysis has dated the parchment containing the lower text to before 671 AD with 99% probability.[28]
This manuscript was acquired byUniversity of Cambridge fromEdward H. Palmer (1840-1882) and EE Tyrwhitt Drake.[29] It was created before 800CE according toCorpus Coranicum.[29] It contains Quran from8:10-72 written on 4 folios.[30]
British Library MS. Or. 2165 Early Qur'anic manuscript written inMa'il script, 7th or 8th century CE.[31]
The termCodex Mashhad refers to an old codex of the Qurʾān, now mostly preserved in two manuscripts, MSS 18 and 4116, in theĀstān-i Quds Library, Mashhad, Iran. The first manuscript in 122 folios and the second in 129 folios together constitute more than 90% of the text of the Qurʾān, and it is also likely that other fragments will be found in Mashhad or elsewhere in the world.[32] The current Codex is in two separate volumes, MSS 18 and 4116. The former contains the first half of the Qurʾān, from the beginning to the end of the 18th sūra,al-Kahf, while the latter comprises the second half, from the middle of the 20th sūra,Ṭāhā, to the end of the Qurʾān.[33] In their present form, both parts ofCodex Mashhad have been repaired, partially completed with pieces from later Kufic Qurʾāns and sometimes in a present-daynashkī hand.[34]
Codex Mashhad has almost all the elements and features of the oldest known Qurʾānic codices. The dual volumes of the main body, written inḥijāzī ormāʾil script, are the onlyḥijāzī manuscripts in vertical format in Iran. Like all ancientḥijāzī codices,Codex Mashhad contains variant readings, regional differences of Qurʾānic codices, orthographic peculiarities, and copyists’ errors, partly corrected by later hands. The script and orthography of the Codex show instances of archaic and not-yet-completely-recognized rules, manifested in various spelling peculiarities. Illumination and ornamentation are not found even in sūra-headbands; rather, some crude sūra dividers have been added later and are found only on adjoining sections.[35]
The script in this manuscript is similar toCodex M a VI 165 atTübingen (Germany),Codex Arabe 331 at theBibliothèque Nationale (Paris), andKodex Wetzstein II 1913 atStaatsbibliothek (Berlin). The combined radiocarbon dating of these manuscripts points firmly to the 1st century ofhijra.
Kufic manuscripts can be characterized by the Kufic form of calligraphy. Kufic calligraphy, which was later named after art historians in the 19th or 20th century is described by means of precise upstanding letters. For a long time, the Blue Qur'an, the Topkapi manuscript, and the Samarkand Kufic Quran were considered the oldest Quran copies in existence. Both codices are more or less complete. They are written in theKufic script. It "can generally be dated from the late eighth century depending on the extent of development in the character of the script in each case."[36]
The Blue Qur'an (Arabic: المصحف الأزرقal-Muṣḥaf al-′Azraq) is a late 9th to early 10th-centuryTunisianQur'an manuscript inKufic calligraphy, probably created in North Africa for theGreat Mosque of Kairouan.[37] It is among the most famous works ofIslamic calligraphy,[37] and has been called "one of the most extraordinary luxury manuscripts ever created."[38] Because the manuscript was done in Kufic style writing, it is quite hard to read. "The letters have been manipulated to make each line the same length, and the marks necessary to distinguish between letters have been omitted."[39] The Blue Quran is constructed of indigo-dyed parchment with the inscriptions done in gold ink, which makes it one of the rarest Quran productions ever known.[39] The use of dyed parchment and gold ink is said to have been inspired by the Christian Byzantine Empire, due to the fact that many manuscripts were produced in the same way there.[39] Each verse is separated by circular silver marks, although they are now harder to see due to fading and oxidization.[39]
The Topkapi Qurʾān manuscript H.S. 32 is a significant Islamic artifact, notable for its size, script, and historical context. Originating from the middle 8th century,[40] this manuscript is preserved in the Topkapi Palace Museum in Istanbul. It showcases a unique style of Kufic script and is distinguished by its ornate decorations and intricate calligraphy. The manuscript has been the subject of scholarly study for its textual variants, providing insights into the early transmission and preservation of the Qurʾānic text.[41] Originally attributed toUthman Ibn Affan (d. 656), However, a recent study published by De Gruyter has refuted this attribution by analyzing the manuscript's paleography and orthography.[42]
The Samarkand Kufic Quran, preserved atTashkent, is a Kufic manuscript, inUzbek tradition identified as one of Uthman's manuscripts, but dated to the 8th or 9th century by both paleographic studies and carbon-dating of the parchment,[43][44] which showed a 95.4% probability of a date between 795 and 855.[44]
Gilchrist's dating of any Kufic manuscript to the later 8th century has been criticized by other scholars, who have cited many earlier instances of early Kufic and pre-Kufic inscriptions. The most important of these are the Quranic inscriptions in Kufic script from the founding of theDome of the Rock inJerusalem (692).[45] Inscriptions on rock Hijazi and early Kufic script may date as early as 646. The debate between the scholars has moved from one over the date origin of the script to one over the state of development of the Kufic script in the early manuscripts and in datable 7th-century inscriptions.
This early Kufic Quranic manuscript is located inAustrian National Library. The codex came fromAnatolia. It came into the possession of the Austrian ambassador to Constantinople Count Anton Prokesch-Osten in 1872 who gave it as a gift to the Austrian National Library. The manuscript dates to 700-725 CE based on the style of punctuation, which was only used for a short amount of time. It contains Quran from 2:97-7:205 and Q 9:19-29 written on 104 folios.[46][47]
This almost complete Quranic manuscript was photographed byOtto Pretzl in 1934 in Morocco. In recent years, a few folios from the manuscripts have been sold by private companies and were dated to the 9th century or earlier byChristie's.[48][49]
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The Ma'il Quran is an 8th-century Quran (between 700 and 799 CE) originating from the Arabian peninsula. It contains two-thirds of the Qur'ān text and is one of the oldest Qur'āns in the world. It was purchased by theBritish Museum in 1879 from the Reverend Greville John Chester and is now kept in the British Library.[50]
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The dating and text of early manuscripts of the Qur'an have been used as evidence in support of the traditional Islamic views and by sceptics to cast doubt on it. The high number of manuscripts and fragments present from the first 100 years after the reported canonization have made the text one ripe for academic discussion. Founder of the revisionist Islamic studies movement in the mid 20th century,John Wansbrough, used the content in the Qur'an as a reference point for ascertaining that it was likely influenced by the Umayyad court, and believed its canon to have likely happened around the same time as that of the IslamicHadith movement.[51] Although never the dominant academic view, with the advent of radiocarbon dating, the view is currently held only by a few scholars.[52] The more recently uncoveredBirmingham Quran manuscript holds significance amongst scholarship because of its early dating and potential overlap with the lifetime of Muhammadc. 570 to 632 CE[53] (the proposed radiocarbon dating gives a 95.4%probability that the animal whose skin made the manuscript parchment was killed sometime between calendar years 568–645 CE). The text's identical reflection of the contemporary standard text of the Quran has generally lent credence to early Muslim narratives and provided a retort for historic criticisms levied at the text.[54][55]Emilio Platti [nl], Professor Emeritus at theCatholic University of Leuven, for example holds that "scholars largely refuse today the late dating of the earliest copies of the Qurʾān proposed for example by John Wansbrough".[56] David Thomas, professor of Christianity and Islam at the University of Birmingham, states that "the parts of the Qur’an that are written on this parchment can, with a degree of confidence, be dated to less than two decades after Muhammad’s death."[7]
Joseph Lumbard also claims that the dating renders "the vast majority of Western revisionist theories regarding the historical origins of the Quran untenable," and quotes a number of scholars (Harald Motzki,Nicolai Sinai) in support of "a growing body of evidence that the early Islamic sources, as Carl Ernst observes, 'still provide a more compelling framework for understanding the Qurʾan than any alternative yet proposed.'"[5]
Behnam Sadeghi and Uwe Bergmann write that theSana'a manuscript is unique among extant early Quranic manuscripts, "the only known manuscript" that "does not belong to the 'Uṯmānic textual tradition".[28] Those Hijazi manuscript fragments belonging to the "'Uṯmānic textual tradition" and dated by radio-carbon to the first Islamic century are not identical. They fall "into a small number of regional families (identified by variants in their rasm, or consonantal text), and each moreover contains non-canonical variants in dotting and lettering that can often be traced back to those reported of the Companions"[33]
Michael Cook[57] and Marijn van Putten[21] have provided evidence that the regional variants of the early Hijazi manuscript fragments share a "stem" and thus likely "descend from a single archetype", (that being Uthmanic codex in traditional Islamic history).
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