Beech (genusFagus) is agenus ofdeciduous trees in the familyFagaceae, native to subtropical (accessory forest element) and temperate (as dominant element ofmesophytic forests)Eurasia and North America. There are 14 accepted species in two distinct subgenera,EnglerianaeDenk & G.W.Grimm andFagus.[1] The subgenusEnglerianae is found only in East Asia, distinctive for its low branches, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark. The better known species of subgenusFagus are native to Europe, western and eastern Asia and eastern North America. They are high-branching trees with tall, stout trunks and smooth silver-grey bark.
The European beechFagus sylvatica is the most commonly cultivated species, yielding a utility timber used for furniture construction, flooring and engineering purposes, in plywood, and household items. The timber can be used to build homes. Beechwood makes excellentfirewood. Slats of washed beech wood are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks forBudweiser beer. Beech logs are burned to dry themalt used in some Germansmoked beers. Beech is also used to smokeWestphalian ham,andouille sausage, and some cheeses.
Beeches aremonoecious, bearing both male and female flowers on the same plant. The small flowers are unisexual, the female flowers borne in pairs, the male flowers wind-pollinatingcatkins. They are produced in spring shortly after the new leaves appear. The fruit of the beech tree, known as beechnuts or mast, is found in smallburrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or mild and nut-like taste.
The European beech (Fagus sylvatica) is the most commonly cultivated, although few important differences are seen between species aside from detail elements such asleaf shape. The leaves of beech trees are entire or sparsely toothed, from 5–15 centimetres (2–6 inches) long and 4–10 cm (2–4 in) broad.
The bark is smooth and light gray. The fruit is a small, sharply three-anglednut 10–15 mm (3⁄8–5⁄8 in) long, borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks1.5–2.5 cm (5⁄8–1 in) long, known as cupules. The husk can have a variety of spine- to scale-like appendages, the character of which is, in addition to leaf shape, one of the primary ways beeches are differentiated.[2] The nuts are called beechnuts[3] or beech mast and have a bitter taste (though not nearly as bitter asacorns) and a hightannin content.
The most recent classification system of the genus recognizes 14 species in two distinct subgenera, subgenusEnglerianae andFagus.[1] Beech species can be diagnosed byphenotypical and/orgenotypical traits. Species of subgenusEngleriana are found only in East Asia, and are notably distinct from species of subgenusFagus in that these beeches are low-branching trees, often made up of several major trunks with yellowish bark and a substantially differentnucleome (nuclear DNA), especially in noncoding, highly variable gene regions such as thespacers of the nuclear-encodedribosomal RNA genes (ribosomal DNA).[4][5] Further differentiating characteristics include the whitish bloom on the underside of the leaves, the visible tertiary leaf veins, and a long, smooth cupule-peduncle. Originally proposed but not formalized by botanist Chung-Fu Shen in 1992, this group comprised two Japanese species,F. japonica andF. okamotoi, and one Chinese species,F. engleriana.[2] While the status ofF. okamotoi remains uncertain, the most recent systematic treatment based on morphological and genetic data confirmed a third species,F. multinervis, endemic toUlleungdo, a South Korean island in theSea of Japan.[1] The beeches of Ulleungdo have been traditionally treated as a subspecies ofF. engleriana, to which they are phenotypically identical,[2][6] or as a variety ofF. japonica.[7] The differ from their siblings by their uniquenuclear andplastid genotypes.[1][8][4]
Research suggests that the first representatives of the modern-day genus were already present in thePaleocene ofArctic North America (westernGreenland[9]) and quickly radiated across the high latitudes of theNorthern Hemisphere, with a firstdiversity peak in theMiocene of northeastern Asia.[10][11] The contemporary species are the product of past, repeatedreticulate evolutionary processes (outbreeding,introgression,hybridization).[4] As far as studied, heterozygosity and intragenomic variation are common in beech species,[4][5][8] and their chloroplast genomes are nonspecific with the exception of the Western Eurasian and North American species.[1]
Probably extinct, described from a single location in China (Sichuan). Individuals recently collected at the type locality were morphologically and genetically indistinguishable fromF. pashanica.[15]
Narrowendemic species; forming a cryptic sister species pair withF. pashanica[4][1]
Taiwan; restricted to the mountains of northern Taiwan
Yes
Fagus hohenackerianaPalib. –Hohenacker's or Caucasian beech
Fagus
Dominant tree species of the Pontic andCaucasus Mountains; intermediate betweenF. caspica andF. orientalis.[16][17][18] Its genetic heterogeneity[1][19] may be indicative for ongoing speciation processes.
Sym- toparapatric withF. lucida andF. pashanica, and sharing alleles with both species in addition to alleles indicating a sister relationship with the JapaneseF. crenata.[4][8]
China, south of the Yellow River, into N.Vietnam; in montane areas up to 2400 m a.s.l.[20]
China; south of the Yellow River in montane areas between 800 and 2000 m a.s.l.[21]
Yes
Fagus mexicanaMartínez
Fagus
Narrow endemic sister species ofF. grandifolia. F. mexicana differs fromF. grandifolia by its slender leaves and less-evolved but more polymorphic set of alleles (higher level ofheterozygosity)[4][8]
Hidalgo, Mexico; at 1400–2000 m a.s.l. as an element of the subtropical montane mesophilic forest"(bosque mesófilo de montaña) superimposing the tropical lowland rainforests.
No evidence so far for hybrid origin. All individuals addressed asF. moesiaca included in genetic studies fell within the variation ofF. sylvatica.[5][23] They may represent a lowland ecotype ofF. sylvatica.[1][24]
Erroneously synonymized by some authors (e.g. POWO) with the CrimeanF. × taurica, from which it differs morphologically and genetically.
Unique phenotype, described from an area in whichF. crenata andF. japonica are sympatric. So far, there is no genetic evidence for ongoing gene flow between the two Japanese species, which belong to different subgeneric lineages.
Hybrid status not yet tested by genetic data; according toisoenzyme profiles a less-evolved, relict population ofF. sylvatica or intermediate betweenF. sylvatica and the species complex historically addressed as Oriental beech (F. orientalis in a broad sense)[16]
The name of the tree in Latin,fagus (from whence thegeneric epithet), is cognate with English "beech" and ofIndo-European origin, and played an important role in early debates on the geographical origins of theIndo-European people, thebeech argument.Greek φηγός (figós) is from the same root, but the word was transferred to the oak tree (e.g. Iliad 16.767) as a result of the absence of beech trees in southernGreece.[31]
Fagus sylvatica was a late entrant to Great Britain after the last glaciation, and may have been restricted to basic soils in the south of England. Some suggest that it was introduced by Neolithic tribes who planted the trees for their edible nuts.[32] The beech is classified as a native in the south of England and as a non-native in the north where it is often removed from 'native' woods.[33] Large areas of theChilterns are covered with beech woods, which are habitat to thecommon bluebell and other flora. TheCwm Clydach National Nature Reserve in southeast Wales was designated for its beech woodlands, which are believed to be on the western edge of their natural range in this steep limestone gorge.[34]
Beech is not native to Ireland; however, it was widely planted in the 18th century and can become a problem shading out the native woodland understory.
Beech is widely planted for hedging and in deciduous woodlands, and mature, regenerating stands occur throughout mainland Britain at elevations below about 650 m (2,100 ft).[35] The tallest and longest hedge in the world (according toGuinness World Records) is theMeikleour Beech Hedge inMeikleour,Perth and Kinross, Scotland.
Fagus sylvatica is one of the most common hardwood trees in north-central Europe, in France constituting alone about 15% of all nonconifers.The Balkans are also home to the lesser-known oriental beech (F. orientalis) and Crimean beech (F. taurica).
As a naturally growing forest tree, beech marks the important border between the European deciduous forest zone and the northern pine forest zone. This border is important for wildlife and fauna.
InDenmark and Scania at the southernmost peak of the Scandinavian peninsula, southwest of the naturalspruce boundary, it is the most common forest tree. It grows naturally in Denmark and southernNorway and Sweden up to about 57–59°N. The most northern known naturally growing (not planted) beech trees are found in a small grove north ofBergen on the west coast of Norway. Near the city ofLarvik is the largest naturally occurring beech forest in Norway,Bøkeskogen.
Some research suggests that early agriculture patterns supported the spread of beech in continental Europe. Research has linked the establishment of beech stands in Scandinavia and Germany with cultivation and fire disturbance, i.e. early agricultural practices. Other areas which have a long history of cultivation,Bulgaria for example, do not exhibit this pattern, so how much human activity has influenced the spread of beech trees is as yet unclear.[36]
Theprimeval beech forests of the Carpathians are also an example of a singular, complete, and comprehensive forest dominated by a single tree species - the beech tree. Forest dynamics here were allowed to proceed without interruption or interference since the last ice age. Nowadays, they are amongst the last pure beech forests in Europe to document the undisturbed postglacial repopulation of the species, which also includes the unbroken existence of typical animals and plants. These virgin beech forests and similar forests across 12 countries in continental Europe were inscribed on theUNESCO World Heritage List in 2007.[37]
The American beech (Fagus grandifolia) occurs across much of the eastern United States and southeastern Canada, with a disjunct sister species in Mexico (F. mexicana). It is the only extant (surviving)Fagus species in the Western Hemisphere. Before thePleistocene Ice Age, it is believed to have spanned the entire width of the continent from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific but now is confined to the east of the Great Plains.F. grandifolia tolerates hotter climates than European species but is not planted much as an ornamental due to slower growth and less resistance to urban pollution. It most commonly occurs as an overstory component in the northern part of its range with sugar maple, transitioning to other forest types further south such as beech-magnolia. American beech is rarely encountered in developed areas except as a remnant of a forest that was cut down for land development.
The dead brown leaves of the American beech remain on the branches until well into the following spring, when the new buds finally push them off.
East Asia is home to eight species ofFagus, only one of which (F. crenata) is occasionally planted in Western countries. Smaller thanF. sylvatica andF. grandifolia, this beech is one of the most common hardwoods in its native range.
Beech grows on a wide range of soil types, acidic or basic, provided they are not waterlogged. The tree canopy casts dense shade and thickens the ground withleaf litter.
Thebeech blight aphid (Grylloprociphilus imbricator) is a common pest of American beech trees. Beeches are also used as food plants by some species ofLepidoptera.
Beech bark is extremely thin and scars easily. Since the beech tree has such delicate bark, carvings, such as lovers' initials and other forms of graffiti, remain because the tree is unable to heal itself.[38]
Beech bark disease is a fungal infection that attacks the American beech through damage caused by scale insects.[39] Infection can lead to the death of the tree.[40]
Beech leaf disease is a disease that affects American beeches spread by the newly discovered nematode,Litylenchus crenatae mccannii. This disease was first discovered in Lake County, Ohio, in 2012 and has now spread to over 41 counties in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Ontario, Canada.[41]As of 2024, the disease has become widespread in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and in portions of coastal New Hampshire and coastal and central Maine.[42]
The beech most commonly grown as anornamental tree is the European beech (Fagus sylvatica), widely cultivated in North America as well as its native Europe. Many varieties are in cultivation, notably the weeping beechF. sylvatica 'Pendula', several varieties of copper or purple beech, the fern-leaved beechF. sylvatica 'Asplenifolia', and the tricolour beechF. sylvatica 'Roseomarginata'. The columnar Dawyck beech (F. sylvatica 'Dawyck') occurs in green, gold, and purple forms, named afterDawyck Botanic Garden in the Scottish Borders, one of the four garden sites of theRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.
Beech wood is an excellentfirewood, easily split and burning for many hours with bright but calm flames. Slats of beech wood are washed in caustic soda to leach out any flavour or aroma characteristics and are spread around the bottom of fermentation tanks forBudweiser beer. This provides a complex surface on which the yeast can settle, so that it does not pile up, preventing yeastautolysis which would contribute off-flavours to the beer.[citation needed] Beech logs are burned to dry themalt used in Germansmoked beers.[43] Beech is also used to smokeWestphalian ham,[44] traditionalandouille (an offal sausage) from Normandy,[45] and some cheeses.
Some drums are made from beech, which has a tone between those ofmaple andbirch, the two most popular drum woods.
The European speciesFagus sylvatica yields a tough, utility timber. It weighs about 720 kg per cubic metre and is widely used for furniture construction, flooring, and engineering purposes, in plywood and household items, but rarely as a decorative wood. The timber can be used to build chalets, houses, and log cabins.[49]
Beech wood is used for the stocks of military rifles when traditionally preferred woods such aswalnut are scarce or unavailable or as a lower-cost alternative.[50]
The edible fruit of the beech tree,[3] known as beechnuts or mast, is found in small burrs that drop from the tree in autumn. They are small, roughly triangular, and edible, with a bitter, astringent, or in some cases, mild and nut-like taste. According to the Roman statesmanPliny the Elder in his workNatural History, beechnut was eaten by the people ofChios when the town was besieged, writing of the fruit: "that of the beech is the sweetest of all; so much so, that, according to Cornelius Alexander, the people of the city of Chios, when besieged, supported themselves wholly on mast".[51] They can also be roasted and pulverized into an adequatecoffee substitute.[52] The leaves can be steeped in liquor to give a light green/yellow liqueur.
In antiquity, the bark of the beech tree was used byIndo-European people for writing-related purposes, especially in a religious context.[53] Beech wood tablets were a commonwriting material in Germanic societies before the development of paper. The Old Englishbōc[54] has the primary sense of "beech" but also a secondary sense of "book", and it is frombōc that the modern word derives.[55] In modern German, the word for "book" isBuch, withBuche meaning "beech tree". In modern Dutch, the word for "book" isboek, withbeuk meaning "beech tree". In Swedish, these words are the same,bok meaning both "beech tree" and "book". There is a similar relationship in some Slavic languages. In Russian andBulgarian, the word for beech isбук (buk), while that for "letter" (as in a letter of the alphabet) is буква (bukva), whileSerbo-Croatian andSlovene use "bukva" to refer to the tree.
The pigmentbistre was made from beech woodsoot. Beechlitter raking as a replacement for straw inanimal husbandry was an old non-timber practice in forest management that once occurred in parts ofSwitzerland in the 17th century.[56][57][58][59] Beech has been listed as one of the 38 plants whose flowers are used to prepareBach flower remedies.[60]
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^abLyle, Katie Letcher (2010) [2004].The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them (2nd ed.). Guilford, CN:FalconGuides. p. 138.ISBN978-1-59921-887-8.OCLC560560606.
^ab"Fagus".The International Fossil Plant Names Index. Retrieved6 February 2023.
^Tanai, T. "Des fossiles végétaux dans le bassin houiller de Nishitagawa, Préfecture de Yamagata, Japon".Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography.22:119–135.
^Manchester, S. R.; Dillhoff, R. M. (2004). "Fagus (Fagaceae) fruits, foliage, and pollen from the Middle Eocene of Pacific Northwestern North America".Canadian Journal of Botany.82 (10):1509–1517.Bibcode:2004CaJB...82.1509M.doi:10.1139/b04-112.
^Lawrence, Gale; Tyrol, Adelaide (1984).A Field Guide to the Familiar: Learning to Observe the Natural World. Prentice-Hall. pp. 75–76.ISBN978-0-13-314071-2.
^"beech." The Columbia Encyclopedia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Credo Reference. Web. 17 September 2012.
^"beech bark disease".Dictionary of Microbiology & Molecular Biology. Wiley. 2006.ISBN978-0-470-03545-0. Credo Reference. Web. 27 September 2012.
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