Bavaria has a distinct culture, largely because of itsCatholic heritage and conservative traditions,[7] which includes alanguage,cuisine, architecture, festivals and elements ofAlpine symbolism.[8] It also has the second-largest economy among theGerman states by GDP figures, giving it the status of a wealthy German region.[9]
Contemporary Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions ofFranconia andSwabia, in addition toAltbayern.
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Though Bavaria has been occupied by humans since the Paleolithic era,Celtic tribes of the Bronze Age, such as theBoii were the first documented inhabitants of theBavarian Alps. In June 2023, Archeologists discovered a bronze sword, dated to the14th century BC, in a former Celtic village; its workmanship so well-preserved "it almost shines."[10] During the early modern era, these peoples were retrospectively romanticized as the most ancient culture of Bavaria,[11] even though theIndo-European languages were relative newcomers to the region. Evidence of the ancientStraubing culture,Únětice culture andLa Tène culture may be found in what is Bavaria today.[12][13][14]
Archeologists know of a large CelticIron Age settlement which was founded inFeldmoching-Hasenbergl, in the North of suburban Munich.[14] Evidence suggests up to 500 people lived in the village from 450 BC.[14] Local life appears to have centred around what could be a town hall or temple, and continued in different forms up to 1000 AD.[14] InManching, Upper Bavaria, an unfortified and semi-urban society appears to have prospered between the3rd century BC until the early1st century AD.[15] The settlement featured food ovens, pottery kilns and metallurgical furnaces.[15] By 200 BC the community there was active in trade—finds of coins, along with an icon-like golden tree suggest it was trading with distant Italo-Greek communities.[15]
In the 1st century BC, Bavaria was conquered by theRoman Empire.[16] An imperial military camp was built 60 km north-west of where Munich sits today, under orders ofAugustus Caesar, between 8 and 5 BC.[17] The camp later became the town ofAugusta Vindelicorum, which would become the capital of theRoman province of Raetia.[17] Another fort was founded in 60 AD, west of modern-day Manching, as evidenced by a legionnaire's sandal found near remains of an ancient fort.[18] By the late2nd century AD, Germanic tribes, including Marcomanni people, were pushing back on Roman forces ofMarcus Aurelius and later,Commodus in theMarcomannic Wars.[19] By 180 AD, Commodus had decided to abandon the annexed positions in Bavaria, leaving its control to Celtic and Germanic tribes.[20]
At Hugbert's death in 735, theduchy passed toOdilo of Bavaria from the neighboringAlemannia. Odilo issued aLex Baiuvariorum for Bavaria, completed the process of church organization in partnership withSaint Boniface in 739, and tried to intervene in Frankish succession disputes by fighting for the claims of theCarolingian dynasty. He was defeated nearAugsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748.[26][27]
Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century.Tassilo III of Bavaria succeeded to rule Bavaria. He initially ruled under Frankish oversight but began to function independently from 763 onward. He was particularly noted for founding new monasteries and for expanding eastwards, oppressingSlavs in theeastern Alps and along theDanube and colonizing these lands. After 781, however, Charlemagne began to exert pressure and Tassilo III was deposed in 788. Dissenters attempted a coup againstCharlemagne atRegensburg in 792, led byPepin the Hunchback.
A map of Bavaria in the 10th century
With the revolt ofHenry II, Duke of Bavaria in 976, Bavaria lost large territories in the south and southeast.
One of the most important dukes of Bavaria wasHenry the Lion of thehouse of Welf, founder ofMunich, andde facto the second most powerful man in the empire as the ruler of two duchies. When in 1180, Henry the Lion was deposed as Duke ofSaxony and Bavaria by his cousin,Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (a.k.a. "Barbarossa" for his red beard), Bavaria was awarded asfief to theWittelsbach family, counts palatinate of Schyren ("Scheyern" in modern German). They ruled for 738 years, from 1180 to 1918. In 1180, however,Styria was also separated from Bavaria. TheElectorate of the Palatinate by Rhine (Kurpfalz in German) was also acquired by theHouse of Wittelsbach in 1214, which they would subsequently hold for six centuries.[28]
In 1623, the Bavarian duke replaced his relative of the Palatinate branch, theElectorate of the Palatinate in the early days of theThirty Years' War and acquired the powerfulprince-elector dignity in theHoly Roman Empire, determining its Emperor thence forward, as well as special legal status under the empire's laws. During the early and mid-18th century the ambitions of the Bavarian prince electors led to several wars with Austria as well as occupations by Austria (War of the Spanish Succession,War of the Austrian Succession with the election of a Wittelsbach emperor instead of a Habsburg).[29]
To mark the unification of Bavaria and theElectoral Palatinate, both being principal Wittelsbach territories, ElectorMaximilian IV Joseph was crowned king of Bavaria. King Maximilian Joseph was quick to change the coat of arms. The various heraldic symbols were replaced and a classical Wittelsbach pattern introduced. The white and bluelozenges symbolized the unity of the territories within the Bavarian kingdom.[30]
The new state also comprised theDuchy of Jülich andBerg as these on their part were in personal union with the Palatinate.[citation needed]
The Duchy of Jülich was ceded to France and the Electoral Palatinate was divided between France and theGrand Duchy of Baden. The Duchy of Berg was given toJoachim Murat. TheCounty of Tyrol and the federal state ofSalzburg were temporarily annexed with Bavaria but eventually ceded to Austria at theCongress of Vienna. In return, Bavaria was allowed to annex the modern-day region ofPalatinate to the west of theRhine andFranconia in 1815.
Between 1799 and 1817, the leading minister, CountMontgelas, followed a strict policy of modernization copying Napoleonic France; he laid the foundations of centralized administrative structures that survived the monarchy and, in part, have retained core validity through to the 21st century. In May 1808, a first constitution was passed byMaximilian I,[32] being modernized in 1818. This second version established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords (Kammer der Reichsräte) and a House of Commons (Kammer der Abgeordneten). That constitution was followed until the collapse of the monarchy at the end ofWorld War I.
After the rise ofPrussia in the early 18th century, Bavaria preserved its independence by playing off the rivalry of Prussia andAustria. Allied to Austria, it was defeated along with Austria in the 1866Austro-Prussian War and was not incorporated into theNorth German Confederation of 1867, but the question ofGerman unity was still alive. WhenFrance declared war on Prussia in 1870, all the south German states (Baden, Württemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt and Bavaria) aside from Austria, joined the Prussian forces and ultimately joined the Federation, which was renamedDeutsches Reich (German Empire) in 1871.
Bavaria continued as a monarchy, and retained some special rights within the federation (such as railways and postal services and control of its army in peace times).
A map of Bavaria in theGerman Empire, which was formed in 1871 and endured until 1918
When Bavaria became part of the newly formedGerman Empire, this action was considered controversial byBavarian nationalists who had wanted to retain independence from the rest of Germany, as had Austria.
As Bavaria had a heavilyCatholic majority population, many people resented being ruled by the mostlyProtestant northerners inPrussia. As a direct result of the Bavarian-Prussian feud, political parties formed to encourage Bavaria to break away and regain its independence.[33]
In the early 20th century,Wassily Kandinsky,Paul Klee,Henrik Ibsen, and other artists were drawn to Bavaria, especially to theSchwabing district in Munich, a center of international artistic activity at the time.
World War I led to the abolition of monarchy all over Germany in 1918. The Bavarian monarchy was the first to fall when on 8 November 1918 Socialist politicianKurt Eisner proclaimed theFree State (i.e. republic) of Bavaria. Eisner headed a new, republican government as minister-president. On 12 November, KingLudwig III signed theAnif declaration, releasing both civil and military officers from their oaths,[34] which the Eisner government interpreted as an abdication.[35]
After losing theJanuary 1919 elections, Eisner was assassinated in February 1919, ultimately leading to a Communist revolt and the short-livedBavarian Soviet Republic being proclaimed 6 April 1919. After violent suppression by elements of the German Army and notably theFreikorps, the Bavarian Soviet Republic fell in May 1919. TheBamberg Constitution (Bamberger Verfassung) was enacted on 12 or 14 August 1919 and came into force on 15 September 1919, placing Bavaria inside theWeimar Republic.
The Rhenish Palatinate was detached from Bavaria in 1946 and made part of the new stateRhineland-Palatinate. In 1949, Bavaria became part of theFederal Republic of Germany, despite theBavarian Parliament voting against adopting theBasic Law of Germany, mainly because it was seen as not granting sufficient powers to the individual states (Länder), but at the same time declared that it would accept it if two-thirds of the otherLänder ratified it. All of the other states ratified it, so it became law.[36] Thus, during theCold War, Bavaria was part ofWest Germany.
Bavarians have often emphasized a separate national identity and considered themselves as "Bavarians" first, "Germans" second.[37] In the 19th-century sense, an independentKingdom of Bavaria existed from only 1806 to 1871. A separate Bavarian identity was emphasized more strongly when Bavaria joined the Prussia-dominatedGerman Empire in 1871, while theBavarian nationalists wanted to keep Bavaria as Catholic and an independent state. Aside from the minorityBavaria Party, most Bavarians now accept Bavaria as part of Germany.[38]
Another consideration is that Bavaria is not culturally uniform. While inhabitantsAltbayern ("Old Bavaria"), the regions forming the historic Bavaria before further acquisitions in 1806–1815, speak a Bavarian dialect of German,Franconia in the north and Bavarian Swabia in the south west, have their unique culture, including different dialects of German,East Franconian andSwabian, respectively.
Uniquely among German states, Bavaria has two official flags of equal status, one with a white and blue stripe, the other with white and blue diamond-shapedlozenges. Either may be used by civilians and government offices, who are free to choose between them.[39] Unofficial versions of the flag, especially a lozenge style with coat of arms, are sometimes used by civilians.
The modern coat of arms of Bavaria was designed by Eduard Ege in 1946, following heraldic traditions.
The Golden Lion: At the dexter chief, sable, alion rampant Or, armed and langued gules. This represents the administrative region of Upper Palatinate.
The "Franconian Rake": At the sinister chief, perfess dancetty, gules, and argent. This represents the administrative regions of Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia.
The Blue "Pantier" (mythical creature fromFrench heraldry, sporting a flame instead of a tongue): At the dexter base, argent, a Pantier rampant azure, armed Or and langued gules. This represents the regions of Lower and Upper Bavaria.
The Three Lions: At the sinister base, Or, three lions passant guardant sable, armed and langued gules. This represents Swabia.
The White-And-Blue inescutcheon: Theinescutcheon of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen, adopted in 1247 by the House of Wittelsbach. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and these arms today symbolize Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms.
The People's Crown (Volkskrone): The coat of arms is surmounted by acrown with a golden band inset with precious stones and decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown first appeared in the coat of arms to symbolize sovereignty ofthe people after the royal crown was eschewed in 1923.
At lower elevations the climate is classified according toKöppen's guide as "Cfb" or "Dfb". At higher altitudes the climate becomes "Dfc" and "ET".
The summer months have been getting hotter in recent years.[41] For example, June 2019 was the warmest June in Bavaria since weather observations have been recorded[41] and the winter 2019/2020 was 3 degrees Celsius warmer than the average temperature for many years all over Bavaria. On 20 December 2019 a record temperature of 20.2 °C (68.4 °F) was recorded inPiding.[42] In general winter months are seeing more precipitation which is taking the form of rain more often than that of snow compared to the past.[41]Extreme weather like the2013 European floods or the2019 European heavy snowfalls is occurring more and more often. One effect of the continuing warming is the melting of almost all BavarianAlpine glaciers: Of the five glaciers of Bavaria only theHöllentalferner is predicted to exist over a longer time perspective. TheSüdliche Schneeferner has almost vanished since the 1980s.[41]
The Bavarian administrative regions ofRegierungsbezirke andBezirke
Bavaria is divided into seven administrative regions calledRegierungsbezirke (singularRegierungsbezirk). Each of these regions has a state agency called theBezirksregierung (district government).
Bezirke (regional districts) are the third communal layer in Bavaria; the others are theLandkreise and theGemeinden orStädte. TheBezirke in Bavaria are territorially identical with theRegierungsbezirke, but they are self-governing regional corporation, having their own parliaments. In the other larger states of Germany, there are onlyRegierungsbezirke as administrative divisions and no self-governing entities at the level of theRegierungsbezirke as theBezirke in Bavaria.
The second communal layer is made up of 71 rural districts (calledLandkreise, singularLandkreis) that are comparable to counties, as well as the 25 independent cities (Kreisfreie Städte, singularKreisfreie Stadt), both of which share the same administrative responsibilities.
The 71 rural districts are on the lowest level divided into 2,031 regular municipalities (calledGemeinden, singularGemeinde). Together with the 25 independent cities (kreisfreie Städte, which are in effect municipalities independent ofLandkreis administrations), there are a total of 2,056 municipalities in Bavaria.
In 44 of the 71 rural districts, there are a total of 215unincorporated areas (as of 1 January 2005, calledgemeindefreie Gebiete, singulargemeindefreies Gebiet), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes (Chiemsee-without islands,Starnberger See-without islandRoseninsel,Ammersee, which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, andWaginger See).
The GermanGreens and the center-rightFree Voters have been represented in the state parliament since 1986 and 2008 respectively.
In the2003 elections the CSU won atwo-thirds supermajority – something no party had ever achieved in postwar Germany. However, in the subsequent2008 elections the CSU lost the absolute majority for the first time in 46 years.[46]
The losses were partly attributed by some to the CSU's stance for an anti-smoking bill.[further explanation needed] (A first anti-smoking law had been proposed by the CSU and passed but was watered down after the election, after which a referendum enforced a strict antismoking bill with a large majority).
Thelast state elections were held on 8 October 2023. The CSU could almost maintain the results from the last elections with 37%. The Greens lost 3% compared to the last election with a result of 14.4%. The SPD lost again compared to the last election and was now at 8.4%. The liberals of the FDP were not able to reach the five-percent-threshold thus they are not part of theLandtag anymore, the second time after the 2013 elections. The right-wing populist Alternative for Germany (AfD) gained another 4% with 14.6% of the vote.[47]
The center-right Free Voters party gained 15.8% of the votes and for the second time formed a government coalition with the CSU which led to the subsequent reelection of Markus Söder asMinister-President of Bavaria.[48]
TheConstitution of Bavaria of the Free State of Bavaria was enacted on 8 December 1946. The new Bavarian Constitution became the basis for the Bavarian State after the Second World War.
Bavaria has aunicameralLandtag (English: State Parliament), elected by universal suffrage.[49] Until December 1999, there was also aSenat, orSenate, whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in 1998, this institution was abolished.[50]
The Bavarian State Government consists of theMinister-President of Bavaria, eleven Ministers and six Secretaries of State. The Minister-President is elected for a period of five years by the State Parliament and is head of state. With the approval of the State Parliament he appoints the members of the State Government. The State Government is composed of the:
Ministry of theInterior, for Sport and Integration (Staatsministerium des Innern, für Sport und Integration)
Ministry for Housing, Construction and Transport (Staatsministerium für Wohnen, Bau und Verkehr)
Ministry of Justice (Staatsministerium der Justiz)
Ministry for Education and Culture (Staatsministerium für Bildung und Kultus)
Ministry for Science and Art (Staatsministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst)
Ministry of Finance and for Home Affairs (Staatsministerium der Finanzen und für Heimat)
Ministry for Economic Affairs, Regional Development and Energy (Staatsministerium für Wirtschaft, Landesentwicklung und Energie)
Ministry for Environment and Consumer Protection (Staatsministerium für Umwelt und Verbraucherschutz)
Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forestry (Staatsministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten)
Ministry for Family, Labour and Social Affairs (Staatsministerium für Familie, Arbeit und Soziales)
Ministry for Health and Care (Staatsministerium für Gesundheit und Pflege)
Ministry for Digital Affairs (Staatsministerium für Digitales)[51]
Political processes also take place in the seven regions (Regierungsbezirke orBezirke) in Bavaria, in the 71 rural districts (Landkreise) and the 25 towns and cities forming their own districts (kreisfreie Städte), and in the 2,031 local authorities (Gemeinden).
In 1995 Bavaria introduceddirect democracy on the local level in areferendum. This was initiated bottom-up by an association calledMehr Demokratie (English: More Democracy). This is a grass-roots organization which campaigns for the right to citizen-initiated referendums. In 1997 the Bavarian Supreme Court tightened the regulations considerably (including by introducing a turn-out quorum). Nevertheless, Bavaria has the most advanced regulations on local direct democracy in Germany. This has led to a spirited citizens' participation in communal and municipal affairs—835 referendums took place from 1995 through 2005.
Unlike most German states (Länder), which simply designate themselves as "State of" (Land [...]), Bavaria uses the style of "Free State of Bavaria" (Freistaat Bayern). The difference from other states is purely terminological, as German constitutional law does not draw a distinction between "States" and "Free States". The situation is thus analogous to the United States, wheresome states use the style "Commonwealth" rather than "State". The term "Free State", a creation of the 19th century and intended to be a German alternative to (or translation of) the Latin-derivedrepublic, was common among the states of theWeimar Republic, after German monarchies had been abolished. Unlike most other states – many of which were new creations – Bavaria has resumed this terminology afterWorld War II. Two other states,Saxony andThuringia, also call themselves "Free States".
In July 2017, Bavaria's parliament enacted a new revision of the "Gefährdergesetz", allowing the authorities to imprison a person for a three months term, renewable indefinitely, when they have not committed a crime but it is assumed that they might commit a crime "in the near future".[52] Critics like the prominent journalistHeribert Prantl have called the law "shameful" and compared it toGuantanamo Bay detention camp,[53] assessed it to be in violation of theEuropean Convention on Human Rights,[54] and also compared it to the legal situation in Russia, where a similar law allows for imprisonment for a maximum term of two years (i.e., not indefinitely).[55]
Bavaria has one of the largest economies inGermany andEurope as a whole,[56] having aGDP of €768.469 billion ($790.813 billion) in 2023, the second highest of the16 German states, only behindNorth Rhine-Westphalia which had a GDP of €839.074 billion ($863.6 billion) in 2023.[57][58] Bavaria had a GDP per capita of €53,768 ($56,456) in 2022, giving it the third highest GDP per capita behindBremen in second andHamburg in first.[59] One of Bavaria's largest industries is theautomotive industry, with Bavaria having fourBMW and twoAudimanufacturing plants and the headquarters of both companies. Bavaria has the second-most employees (207,829) in the automotive industry of all German states afterBaden-Württemberg as of 2018.[needs update][60] Other countries such asCzechia,Austria,Switzerland andItaly have strong economic ties with Bavaria.[61]
Population density ofGermany with Bavaria in the southeast
Bavaria has a population of approximately 13.1 million inhabitants (2020). Eight of the80 largest cities in Germany are located within Bavaria with Munich being the largest (1,484,226 inhabitants, approximately 6.1 million when including the broader metropolitan area), followed byNuremberg (518,370 inhabitants, approximately 3.6 million when including the broader metropolitan area),Augsburg (296,582 inhabitants) andRegensburg (153,094 inhabitants). All other cities in Bavaria had less than 150,000 inhabitants each in 2020. Population density in Bavaria was 186/km2 (480/sq mi), below the national average of 233/km2 (600/sq mi). Foreign nationals resident in Bavaria (bothimmigrants andrefugees/asylum seekers) were principally from other EU countries and Turkey.
Some features of the Bavarian culture and mentality are remarkably distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to religion, traditions, and language.
As of 2020[update] 46.9% of Bavarians adhered to Catholicism (a decline from 70.4% in 1970).[74][72] 17.2 percent of the population adheres to theEvangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria, which has also declined since 1970.[74][72] Three percent wasOrthodox andMuslims make up 4.0% of the population of Bavaria. 28.9 percent of Bavarians are irreligious or adhere to other religions.
Bavarians commonly emphasize pride in their traditions. Traditional costumes collectively known asTracht are worn on special occasions and include inAltbayernLederhosen for males andDirndl for females. Centuries-oldfolk music is performed. TheMaibaum, or Maypole (which in the Middle Ages served as the community's business directory, as figures on the pole represented the trades of the village), and the bagpipes of the Upper Palatinate region bear witness to theancient Celtic and Germanic remnants of cultural heritage of the region. There are many traditional Bavarian sports disciplines, e.g. theAperschnalzen, competitivewhipcracking.
Whether in Bavaria, overseas or with citizens from other nations Bavarians continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals and dances to keep their heritage alive.
Bavarians tend to place a great value on food and drink. In addition to their renowned dishes, Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in Germany; for exampleWeißwurst ("white sausage") or in some instances a variety of entrails. At folk festivals and in manybeer gardens, beer is traditionally served by the litre (in aMaß). Bavarians are particularly proud[75] of the traditionalReinheitsgebot, or beer purity law, initially established by theDuke of Bavaria for the City of Munich (i.e. the court) in 1487 and the duchy in 1516. According to this law, only three ingredients were allowed in beer: water,barley, andhops. In 1906 theReinheitsgebot made its way to all-German law, and remained a law in Germany until the EU partly struck it down in 1987 as incompatible with the European common market.[76] German breweries, however, cling to the principle, and Bavarian breweries still comply with it in order to distinguish their beer brands.[77] Bavarians are also known as some of the world's most prolific beer drinkers, with an average annual consumption of 170 liters per person.[citation needed]
Bavaria is also home to theFranconia wine region, which is situated along the riverMain in Franconia. The region has produced wine (Frankenwein) for over 1,000 years and is famous for its use of theBocksbeutel wine bottle. The production of wine forms an integral part of the regional culture, and many of its villages and cities hold their own wine festivals (Weinfeste) throughout the year.
Three German dialects are most commonly spoken in Bavaria:Austro-Bavarian in Old Bavaria (Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria, and the Upper Palatinate),Swabian German (anAlemannic German dialect) in the Bavarian part of Swabia (southwest) andEast Franconian German in Franconia (north). In the small townLudwigsstadt in the north, district Kronach in Upper Franconia,Thuringian dialect is spoken. During the 20th century an increasing part of the population began to speakStandard German (Hochdeutsch), mainly in the cities.
Bavarians consider themselves to beegalitarian and informal.[78] Their sociability can be experienced at the annualOktoberfest, the world's largest beer festival, which welcomes around six million visitors every year, or in the famousbeer gardens. In traditional Bavarian beer gardens, patrons may bring their own food but buy beer only from the brewery that runs the beer garden.[79]
There are around 1,300 museums in Bavaria, including museums of art and cultural history, castles and palaces, archaeological and natural history collections, museums of technological and industrial history, and farm and open-air museums. The history of Bavarian museums dates back to manorialcabinets of curiosities andtreasuries. The art holdings of theHouse of Wittelsbach thus formed the first and essential foundation of later state museums. As early as the mid-16th century, Duke Albrecht V (r. 1550–1579) had collected paintings as well as Greek and Roman sculptures (or copies made of them). He had the Antiquarium in the Munich Residence built specifically for his collection of antique sculptures. The electorsMaximilian I (r. 1594–1651) andMax II. Emanuel (r. 1679–1726) expanded the art collections considerably. In theAge of Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century, there was a demand to open up art collections to the general public in the spirit of "popular education". But Museums were not founded by the state until the time of the art-lovingKing Ludwig I (r. 1825–1848). In Munich, he builtGlyptothek (opened 1830),Alte Pinakothek (opened 1836), andNeue Pinakothek (opened 1853). Also, the foundation of theGermanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg (1852), the establishment of theNeue Pinakothek, which opened in 1853, and theBavarian National Museum (1867) in Munich were of central importance for the development of museums in Bavaria in the 19th century. With the end of the monarchy in 1918, many castles and formerly Wittelsbach property passed to the young Free State. In particular, the castles of kingLudwig II (r. 1864–1886)Neuschwanstein,Linderhof andHerrenchiemsee, quickly became magnets for the public. Since then, the number of Bavarian Museums has grown considerably, from 125 in 1907 to around 1,300 today.[80]
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