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| Battle of Tewkesbury | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theWars of the Roses | |||||||
 The battle depicted in aGhent manuscript | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 House of York |  House of Lancaster | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 5,000–6,000 men[1][2] | Approx. 6,000 men[3][1][2] | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| Unknown | 2,000[4] | ||||||
  Location within England | |||||||
TheBattle of Tewkesbury, which took place on Saturday 4 May 1471, was one of the most decisive battles of theWars of the Roses inEngland.
KingEdward IV and his forces loyal to theHouse of York completely defeated those of the rivalHouse of Lancaster. The Lancastrian heir to the throne,Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, and many prominent Lancastrian nobles were killed during the battle or executed. The Lancastrian king,Henry VI, who was a prisoner in theTower of London, died shortly after the battle, perhaps murdered. Tewkesbury restored political stability to England until the death of Edward IV in 1483.
The termWars of the Roses refers to the informalheraldic badges of the two rival houses of Lancaster and York, which had been contending for the English throne since the late 1450s. In 1461 the Yorkist claimant,Edward, Earl of March, was proclaimed King Edward IV and defeated the supporters of the weak, intermittently insane Lancastrian King Henry VI at theBattle of Towton.[5] Lancastrian revolts in the far north of England were defeated in 1464, and the fugitive King Henry was captured and imprisoned the next year. His wife,Margaret of Anjou, and their 13-year-old sonEdward of Westminster, Prince of Wales were exiled and impoverished in France.[6] Edward IV's hold on the throne appeared to be secure, at least temporarily.
Edward owed his victory in large measure to the support of his cousin, the powerful16th Earl of Warwick. They became estranged when Edward spurned the French diplomatic marriage that Warwick was seeking for him and instead marriedElizabeth Woodville, widow of an obscure Lancastrian gentleman, in secret in 1464.[7]
When the marriage became public knowledge, Edward placed many of his new queen's family in powerful positions that Warwick had hoped to control. Edward, meanwhile, reversed Warwick's policy of friendship with France by marrying his sisterMargaret toCharles the Bold, theDuke of Burgundy. The embittered Warwick secured the support of Edward IV's brotherGeorge Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, for a coup in exchange for Warwick's promise to crown Clarence king.[8] Although Edward was imprisoned briefly, Clarence was unacceptable as monarch to most of the country. Edward was allowed to resume his rule, outwardly reconciled with Warwick and Clarence. Within a year, though, he accused them of freshtreachery and forced them to flee to France.
With no hope of a reconciliation with King Edward, Warwick's best hope of regaining power in England lay in restoring Henry VI to the throne.Louis XI of France feared a hostile alliance of Burgundy under Charles the Bold and England under Edward. He was prepared to support Warwick with men and money, but to give legitimacy to any uprising by Warwick, the acquiescence of Margaret of Anjou was required. Warwick and Margaret were previously sworn enemies, but her attendants (in particular SirJohn Fortescue, formerly Chief Justice during Henry VI's reign) and Louis eventually persuaded her to ally the House of Lancaster with Warwick.[9]
AtAngers Warwick begged her pardon on his knees for all past wrongs done to her, and was forgiven. Prince Edward was betrothed to Warwick's younger daughterAnne (the marriage was eventually solemnised atAmboise on 13 December 1470 but may not have been consummated, as Margaret was seeking a better match for Edward once he was king).[10] Finally they swore loyalty to Henry VI on a fragment of theTrue Cross inAngers Cathedral. However, Margaret declined to let Prince Edward land in England or to land there herself until Warwick had established a firm government and made the country safe for them.[11]
Warwick landed in theWest Country on 13 September 1470, accompanied by Clarence and some unswerving Lancastrian nobles, including theEarl of Oxford andJasper Tudor, the Earl of Pembroke. As King Edward made his way south to face Warwick, he realised that Warwick's brotherJohn, Marquess of Montagu, who had up until then remained loyal to Edward, had defected at the head of a large army in the north of England. Edward fled toKing's Lynn, where he took ship forFlanders, part of Burgundy, accompanied only by his youngest brotherRichard of Gloucester and a few faithful adherents.[12]
In London Warwick released King Henry, led him in procession toSaint Paul's cathedral, and installed him in Westminster palace. Warwick's position nevertheless remained precarious. His alliance with Louis of France and his intention to declare war on Burgundy was contrary to the interests of the merchants, as it threatened English trade withFlanders and theNetherlands. Clarence had long been excluded from Warwick's calculations. In November 1470 Parliament declared that Prince Edward and his (putative) descendants were Henry's heirs to the throne; Clarence would become king only if the Lancastrian line of succession failed. Unknown to Warwick, Clarence secretly became reconciled with his brother, King Edward.[13]
With Warwick in power in England, it was Charles of Burgundy's turn to fear a hostile alliance of England and France. As an obvious counter to Warwick, he supplied King Edward with money (50,000 florins), ships, and several hundred men (including handgunners). Edward set sail fromFlushing on 11 March 1471 with 36 ships and 1,200 men.[14] He touched briefly on the English coast atCromer but found that theDuke of Norfolk, who might have supported him, was away from the area and that Warwick controlled that part of the country. Instead, his ships made forRavenspurn, near the mouth of theRiver Humber, whereHenry Bolingbroke had landed in 1399 on his way to reclaim the Duchy of Lancaster and ultimately deposeRichard II.
Edward's landing was inauspicious at first; the ships were scattered by bad weather and his men landed in small detachments over a wide area on 14 March.[15] The port ofKingston-upon-Hull refused to allow Edward to enter, so he made for York, claiming rather like Bolingbroke that he was seeking only the restoration of the Duchy of York. He then began to march south. NearPontefract Castle he evaded the troops of Warwick's brother Montagu. By the time Edward reached the town ofWarwick he had gathered enough supporters to proclaim himself king again. The Earl of Warwick sent urgent requests for Queen Margaret, who was gathering fresh forces in France, to join him in England. He himself was atCoventry, preparing to bar Edward's way to London, while Montagu hastened up behind the king's army.
Edward, however, knew that Clarence was ready to turn his coat once again and betray Warwick, his father-in-law. He marched rapidly west and joined with Clarence's men, who were approaching fromGloucestershire. Clarence appealed to Warwick to surrender, but Warwick refused to even speak to him. Edward's army made rapidly for London, pursued by Warwick and Montagu. London was supposedly defended by the4th Duke of Somerset, but he was absent and the city readily admitted Edward. The unfortunate and by now feeble Henry VI was sent back to the Tower of London.[16] Edward then turned about to face Warwick's approaching army. On 14 April, they met at theBattle of Barnet. In a confused fight in thick fog, some of Warwick's army attacked each other by mistake, and at the cries of "Treachery!" his army disintegrated and was routed. Montagu died in the battle and Warwick was cut down trying to reach his horse to escape.
Urged on by Louis XI, Margaret finally sailed on 24 March. Storms forced her ships back to France several times, and she and Prince Edward finally landed atWeymouth inDorsetshire on the same day the Battle of Barnet was fought. While Margaret sheltered at nearbyCerne Abbey, the Duke of Somerset brought news of the disaster at Barnet to her. She briefly wished to return to France, but Prince Edward persuaded her to gamble for victory.[17] Somerset and theEarl of Devon had already raised an army for Lancaster in the West Country. Their best hope was to march northward and join forces with the Lancastrians in Wales, led byJasper Tudor. Other Lancastrian forces could be relied upon to distract King Edward; in particular, a fleet under Warwick's relation, theBastard of Fauconberg, was preparing to descend on Kent, where the Nevilles and Warwick, in particular, had always been popular.
In London King Edward had learned of Margaret's landing only two days after she arrived. Although he had given many of his supporters and troops leave after the victory at Barnet, he was nonetheless able to rapidly muster a substantial force atWindsor, just west of London. It was difficult at first to determine Margaret's intentions, as the Lancastrians had sent out several feints that suggested they might be making directly for London, but Edward's army set out for the West Country within a few days.
On 30 April Margaret's army had reachedBath, on its way towards Wales. She turned aside briefly to secure guns, reinforcements, and money from the city ofBristol.[18] On the same day King Edward reachedCirencester. On hearing that Margaret was at Bristol, he turned south to meet her army. However, the Lancastrians made a feint towardsLittle Sodbury, about 12 miles (19 km) north-east of Bristol. Nearby was Sodbury Hill, anIron Age hill fort that was an obvious strategic point for the Lancastrians to seize. When Yorkist scouts reached the hill there was a sharp fight in which they suffered heavy casualties. Believing that the Lancastrians were about to offer battle, Edward temporarily halted his army while the stragglers caught up and the remainder could rest after their rapid march from Windsor. However, the Lancastrians instead made a swift move north by night, passing within 3 miles (4.8 km) of Edward's army. By the morning of 2 May, they had gained the safety ofBerkeley Castle and had a head start of 15 miles (24 km) over Edward.[19]
King Edward realized that the Lancastrians were seeking to cross theRiver Severn into Wales. The nearest crossing point they could use was at the city ofGloucester. He sent urgent messages to the governor, SirRichard Beauchamp, ordering him to bar the gates to Margaret and man the city's defences. When Margaret arrived on the morning of 3 May, Beauchamp refused her summons to let her army pass, and she realized that there was insufficient time to storm the city before Edward's army arrived. Instead, her army made another forced march of 10 miles (16 km) to Tewkesbury, attempting to reach the next bridge atUpton-upon-Severn, 7 miles (11 km) further on. Edward meanwhile had marched no less than 31 miles (50 km), passing throughCheltenham (then little more than a village) in the late afternoon. The day was very hot, and both the Lancastrians and Edward's pursuing army were exhausted. The Lancastrians were forced to abandon some of their artillery, which was captured by Yorkist reinforcements following from Gloucester.[19]
At Tewkesbury, the tired Lancastrians halted for the night. Most of their army were footmen and unable to continue further without rest, and even the mounted troops were weary. By contrast, King Edward's army was composed mainly of mounted men, who nevertheless dismounted to fight on foot as most English armies did during this period. Hearing from his "prickers" or mounted scouts of Margaret's position, Edward drove his army to make another march of 6 miles (9.7 km) from Cheltenham, finally halting 3 miles (4.8 km) from the Lancastrians. The Lancastrians knew they could retreat no further before Edward attacked their rear, and that they would be forced to give battle.
As day broke on 4 May, the Lancastrians took up a defensive position a mile south of the town of Tewkesbury. To their rear were theRiver Avon and the Severn.Tewkesbury Abbey was just behind the Lancastrian centre. A farmhouse then known as Gobes Hall marked the centre of the Lancastrian position; nearby was "Margaret's camp", earthworks of uncertain age. Queen Margaret is said to have spent the night at Gobes Hall, before hastily taking refuge on the day of battle in a religious house some distance from the battlefield.[20] The main strength of the Lancastrians' position was provided by the ground in front, which was broken up by hedges, woods, embankments, and "evil lanes". This was especially true on their right.
The Lancastrian army numbered approximately 6,000,[3] likely outnumbering the Yorkists by only a few hundred.[1][2] As was customary at the time, it was organised into three "battles". The right battle was commanded by the Duke of Somerset. A stream, the Colnbrook, flowed through his position, making some of the ground difficult to traverse. The Lancastrian centre was commanded byLord Wenlock. Unlike the other principal Lancastrian commanders, Wenlock had deserted the Lancastrian cause after the First Battle of Saint Albans, only to revert to the Lancastrians when he was deprived of theLieutenancy of Calais. Prince Edward was present with the centre. At 17 Prince Edward was no stranger to battlefields, having been given by his mother the task of condemning to death Yorkist prisoners taken at theSecond Battle of St Albans, but he lacked experience of actual command. The left battle was commanded by theEarl of Devon, another devoted Lancastrian. His battle, and part of the centre, occupied a low ridge known locally as the "Gastons".[21] A small river, theSwilgate, protected Devon's left flank, before curving behind the Lancastrian position to join the Avon.
The Yorkists numbered around 5,000–6,000 men.[1][2] Like the Lancastrians, King Edward organised his army into three battles.
Edward's vanguard was commanded by his youngest brother,Richard, Duke of Gloucester. Although he was only 18 years old, Richard was already an experienced commander and had led a division at the Battle of Barnet. Edward himself commanded the main battle, in which Clarence was also stationed. Edward was 29 years old and at the height of his prowess as a soldier. His lifelong friend and supporterLord Hastings commanded the rear. He also was an experienced commander and, like Richard, had accompanied Edward into exile in the Low Countries and had led a battle at Barnet.
Although by tradition the vanguard occupied the right of the line of battle, several authors have conjectured from descriptions in near-contemporary accounts (such as theHistorie of the arrivall of Edward IV) that Richard of Gloucester's division actually took position to the left of Edward's battle[3] or that the divisions of Edward's army advanced in line ahead, with Edward's division leading.
Edward made one other important tactical disposition. To the left of his army was a thickly wooded park. Concerned that hidden Lancastrians might attack from this quarter, he ordered 200 mounted spearmen to occupy part of the woods and prevent the Lancastrians making use of them, or act on their own initiative if they were not themselves attacked.[3] He then "displayed his bannars: dyd blowe up the trompets: commytted his caws and qwarell to Almyghty God, to owr most blessyd lady his mother: Vyrgyn Mary, the glorious Seint George, and all the saynts: and advaunced, directly upon his enemyes."[22]
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As they moved towards the Lancastrian position, King Edward's army found that the ground was so broken up by woods, ditches, and embankments that it was difficult to attack in any sort of order. However, the Yorkist archers and artillery showered the Lancastrians with arrows and shot. The Yorkists certainly had more guns than their enemies, and they were apparently better served.[23]
Either to escape the cannonade and volleys of archery or because he saw an opportunity to outflank King Edward's isolated battle, the Duke of Somerset led at least part of his men via some of the "evil lanes" to attack Edward's left flank. Although taken by surprise, Edward's men resisted stoutly, beating back Somerset's attack among the hedges and banks. At the vital moment, the 200 spearmen Edward had earlier posted in the woods far out on the left attacked Somerset from his own right flank and rear, as Gloucester's battle also joined in the fighting.
Somerset's battle was routed, and his surviving troops tried to escape across the Severn. Most were cut down as they fled. The long meadow astride the Colnbrook leading down to the river is known to this day as "Bloody Meadow".[23] Somerset galloped up to Wenlock, commanding the centre, and demanded to know why Wenlock had failed to support him. According to legend (recounted inEdward Hall's chronicle, written several years afterwards though from first-hand accounts), he did not wait for an answer but dashed out Wenlock's brains with a battleaxe[24] before seeking sanctuary in the Abbey.
As its morale collapsed, the rest of the Lancastrian army tried to flee, but the Swilgate became a deadly barrier. Many who succeeded in crossing it converged on a mill south of the town of Tewkesbury and a weir in the town itself, where there were crossings over the Avon. Here, too, many drowned or were killed by their pursuers.
Among the leading Lancastrians who died on the field were Somerset's younger brotherJohn Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset, and the Earl of Devon. The Prince of Wales was slain on the field during the retreat by some of Clarence's men, despite pleading for help to Clarence, who had sworn allegiance to him in France barely a year before.[18]
Many of the other Lancastrian nobles and knights sought sanctuary inTewkesbury Abbey. King Edward attended prayers in the Abbey shortly after the battle. He granted permission for the Prince of Wales and others slain in the battle to be buried within the Abbey or elsewhere in the town without beingquartered as traitors as was customary. However, two days after the battle, Somerset and other leaders were dragged out of the Abbey and ordered by Gloucester and the Duke of Norfolk to be put to death after perfunctory trials.[20] Among them were Hugh Courtenay, cousin of the Earls of Devon, and SirJohn Langstrother, the prior of themilitary order of St. John.[18] The Abbey was not officially a sanctuary.[25] It had to be reconsecrated a month after the battle, following the violence done within its precincts.
A few days later Queen Margaret sent word to Edward from her refuge that she was "at his commandment".[26]
Edward was unable to rest after the battle. Lancastrians under Jasper Tudor were still active in Wales, and there was an ineffective rising in the North. Edward went toCoventry in the Midlands to make dispositions against the northern and Welsh Lancastrians, and give his army three days' rest.[20] The most dangerous Lancastrian force, however, was that commanded by the Bastard of Fauconberg. As anticipated, he had landed atSandwich and rapidly recruited a force from among the pro-Neville Kentishmen. Together with exiled Lancastrians and freebooters from several countries, his army may have numbered 16,000 or even 17,000 in total.[20]
On 14 May, he attacked London from the south. His men burned part of the suburb ofSouthwark, but were beaten back atLondon Bridge. The next day, they attackedAldgate andBishopsgate from the east. The garrison of the Tower of London, led byEarl Rivers, QueenElizabeth's brother, who had been injured at Barnet, repulsed them. Citizens defending their property undoubtedly played a major role.
Had Fauconberg succeeded in capturing the city, he might also have captured Edward's wife and their children and released King Henry from the Tower. However, on hearing that Edward's army was approaching, he retreated to Sandwich. Like Margaret, he appeared to be dispirited by the news of Tewkesbury and the Prince's death, and later rather tamely surrendered himself and his ships. He was executed five months later after attempting to escape from custody.
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On his way to suppress Fauconberg and the Kentish rebels, Edward passed through London in triumph on 21 May, with the captive Queen Margaret beside him in a chariot. King Henry VI died in the Tower of London that night, at the hands of or by the order of Richard of Gloucester according to several near contemporary accounts.[27] However, the most contemporary account only states that Gloucester was there 'along with many others' and the murder was almost certainly on the orders of the new king, Edward IV. The deposed king's death was announced in public that he had died "of pure displeasure and melancholy", but few believed this.
Gloucester later marriedAnne Neville, the younger daughter of Warwick and the widow of Henry and Margaret's son Edward.
With the deaths of Somerset and his younger brother, theHouse of Beaufort, who were distant cousins of Henry VI and had a remote claim to succeed him, had been almost exterminated. Only the female line of Somerset's uncle, the1st Duke of Somerset, remained, represented byLady Margaret Beaufort and her sonHenry Tudor (later King Henry VII). Henry escaped from Wales with Jasper Tudor, his paternal uncle, and remained in exile inBrittany for the remainder of Edward's reign. The year after the Battle of Tewkesbury, however, Lady Margaret marriedLord Stanley, one of King Edward's supporters, who later turned against Edward's brother Richard of Gloucester when he became king as Richard III and was instrumental in putting Henry Tudor on the throne.
Every year the battle is re-enacted on the second whole weekend in July at theTewkesbury Medieval Festival. The event (founded in 1984) is one of the largest events of its kind in Europe, attracting enthusiasts from all over the world.[28]
The Tewkesbury Battlefield Society erected a monument to the battle in the form of two sculptures 5 metres (16 ft) high, of a victorious mounted knight and a defeated horse. TitledArrivall after the contemporary account of the battle, the work was created by Phil Bews out of green oak wood felled in Gloucestershire, and was dedicated on the anniversary of the battle in 2014.[29]
